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HORSE-SHOEING 




Frontispiece,] 



FEB 18 1898 



A HANDBOOK OF 



HORSE- SHOEING 



WITH 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS 
ON THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 

HORSE'S FOOT 

/ BY 

JNO. A. W. DOLLAK, M.E.C.V.S. 

EDITOK AND TKANSLATOK OF MOLLEE'S YETEEINAKY SUEGEET. 
AUTHOR OF "an ATLAS OF VETEEINARY SUEGICAL OPEEATIONS," ETC. 



WITH THE COLLABORATION OF 

ALBEET WHEATLEY, F.KC.V.S. 




'^3' 



> OFPiCE or THE ''' \ 



12030 FEE J7 1838 



— — <*>- . / 

New YoRk-k;;^£r£R qp oc?^^^ 
WILLIAM K. JENKINST ' 

VETERINARY PUBLISHER AND BOOKSELLER, 
851 AND 853 Sixth Avenue. 

1898. 



/ 



3402 



Copyright, 1898, by William R. Jenkins. 



All Rights Reserved. 



'S)r 



PREFACE. 

The friendly reception accorded to previous efforts encouraged 
the liope that a volume dealing with that less studied though 
scarcely less useful subject, Horse-shoeing, might find similar 
acceptance. To provide material, all the best known German, 
French, and Italian treatises have been ransacked, the leading 
English works referred to, and the information thus gained 
collated. Without any intention of disparaging the labors of 
other authors, the writer feels bound to confess that he has 
found no work of more practical and scientific value than 
Leisering-Hartmann's masterly Handbook, " Der Fuss des 
Pferdes;" which, though in a much modified form, and with 
the addition of a, large amount of new matter, has been adopted 
as the model and substantial basis for the present volume. 
Other sources of information are indicated in the Bibliography 
hereto attached. 

The first nineteen pages, on the history of Horse-shoeing, 
have been translated, with little alteration, from Leisering- 
Hartmann. In the section devoted to the Anatomy of the 
Foot, Professor Mettam has kindly contributed pages 61 to 65, 
and fig. 66 on page 106. The part dealing with practical 
Horse-shooing has been almost entirely re-written, while many 
additions drawn from the writer's own experience or from 
Continental literature have been made in order to adapt the 
book to the requirements of English readers. 

To Mr. Albert Wheatley is due one of the chief features of 
the book, viz., the large-sized blocks of horse-shoes printed on 
separate sheets, and the descriptions accompanying them. 



vi PREFACE. 

The engraving of these has occupied considerably longer time 
than was at first anticipated, but the important character ol 
the added matter f ally compensates for any delay, and must be 
held as largely contributing to whatever degree of success the 
book may eventually attain. To the pains Mr. Wheatley has 
taken in superintending the preparation of both shoes and 
illustrations, the enthusiasm he has exhibited in the work now 
completed, and the personal kindness he has at all times 
shown, the writer cordially testifies. 

Messrs. Schonefeld of Dresden have kindly permitted the 
use of the majority of the wood-cuts, and Messrs. Phipson & 
Warden, iron merchants, etc., Birmingham, have accorded a 
similar privilege in respect of the illustrations marked with 
an asterisk. 

To Professor M' Queen, of the Koyal Veterinary College, 
London, who rendered such valued service during the publi- 
cation of the work on Veterinary Surgery, the writer has once 
more the sincere pleasure of tendering his thanks, and of 
gratefully acknowledging how much he owes to that gentle- 
man's kindly encouragement and assistance in revising proof- 
sheets during the two years devoted to this later task. 

JNO. A. W. DOLLAR 

London, October, 1897. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction, 
History, 



PAGE 
1 

2 



PART I.— THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 



Section I. — The Structure of the Foot. 

General Remarks on the Horse's Foot, 

Chapter I. The bones of the foot, . 

1. The lower end of the great metacarpus, 

2. The suffraginis bone or first phalanx, 

3. The two sesamoid bones, 

4. The coronet bone or second phalanx, 

5. The pedal bone or third phalanx, 

6. The navicular bone, .... 
Chapter II. The ligamentous structures of the foot, 

1. The fetlock joint, .... 

2. The pastern joint, .... 

3. The pedal or coffin joint, 

Chapter III. The locomotor apparatus of the foot, 

1. The extensor pedis tendon, = . . 

2. The flexor pedis perforatus tendon, . 

3. The flexor pedis perforans tendon. 
Chapter IV. The elastic tissues of the foot, 

1. The lateral cartilages, 

2. The plantar cushion, .... 
Chapter V. The blood-vessels and nerves of the f<K)t, 

A. Blood-vessels, . . . • . 

1. The arteries, .... 

2. The veins, . . . ■ 

B. The nerves, . . . . • 
Chapter VI. The protective structures of the foot, 

A. The horn-secreting structures, 

1. The perioplic ring, o . ^ 

2. The coronary band, 

3. The sensitive laminae, 

4. The sensitive sole, 

5. The sensitive frog, 



20 
24 
24 
24 
26 
27 
28 
30 
32 
33 
37 
38 

40 
41 
41 
42 

45 

46 

48 

52 
52 
54 

57 
59 

61 
67 
67 

68 
70 

72 
73 



Vlll 



CONTENTS. 



B. The horny structures, 

1. The horny wall, .... 

2. The horny sole, .... 
8. The horny frog, .... 

Section II.— The Functions of the Foot. 

Chapter I. Histology of horn, 

Chapter II. The growth of the hoof, 

Chapter III. The mechanical functions of the foot, 
Changes in form of the hoof, 
Bearing of the above on practical shoeing, 



PACE 

73 

74 
84 



90 

93 

101 

111 
115 
127 



PART II.— THE HORSE'S FOOT IN 'RELATION TO SHOEING. 
Section I.— Shoeing of Healthy Feet. 



Chapter I, Horse-shoes, etc., 

1. Material for the manufacture of shoes, 

2. Shoes and their properties, 
8. Forging the shoe, 

4. Varieties of shoes, 

Chapter II. Winter shoeing, 

1. Rough nailing, 

2. Roughing by means of sharp heels and toes, 

3. Roughing with screws, 

4. Cogs, ..... 

5. Shoes with removable toe-grips, 

Section II. 



Chapter I. The foot in its relation to the entire limb, 

1. Conformation of the limbs, 

2. General conformation of the feet, when viewed from in 

front, behind and the side, . 

3. The method of advancing the hoof, 

4. Form of the hoof, 

5. Characteristics of the sound hoof, 

6. Wear of the hoof and of the shoe, 
Chapter II. The practice of shoeing, 

1. Management and control of the horse, 

2. Determining the style of shoeing, 

3. Removal of the old shoes, 

4. Preparation of the hoof for shoeing, . 

5. Working without shoes, 

6. General principles to be observed in the choice of the shoe, 

7. Choice of the shoe for specific uses, . , , , 



129 
129 
133 
140 
146 
153 
154 
156 
158 
164 
167 



171 

171 

178 
182 
185 
191 
192 

196 
196 
199 
201 
202 

r:3 

210 
217 



CONTENTS. ix 



(1) Hacks, . . . c - c 
Special shoes for hacks, .... 

Fullered fore shoe, .... 
Fullered seated fore shoe with thick heels, . 

(2) Hunters, . . » . . . 

Temporary shoes, .... 

Special shoes for hunters, 
Fullered seated fore shoe, 

Concave partially -fullered "dub-toed" fore shoe. 
Concave fullered, feather-edge fore shoe, 
Stamped fore shoe, .... 
Concave partially-fullered hind shoe. 
Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, 
Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, 
Charlier hind shoe, . <> > . 

(3) Race horses, ..... 

Racing plate (fore), .... 
Concave fullered fore shoe (for steeplechasing), 

(4) Trotting horses, . , . . . 

Partially fullered fore shoe (for trotters), . 

(5) Carriage horses, ..... 
Special shoes for carriage horses, 

Fullered fore shoe, seated and tapped for screws, 
*' Rod way " fore shoe. 
Thin heeled fullered seated fore shoe. 
Fullered fore shoe (dished on ground surface), 

(6) Omnibus horses, ..... 
Special shoes for omnibus work. 

Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work), with two 
calkins, , . . • • 

Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work), with calkin 
and wedge heel, .... 

Stamped fore shoe for omnibus work, 

(7) Cart horses, . . . . • 
Special shoes for cart horses, 

Cart horse hind shoe for town work. 
Cart horse stamped fore shoe for show purposes, 
Cart horse stamped hind shoe for show purposes, 
"North country " stamped fore shoe, 
* * North country " stamped hind shoe, 
Staniped fore shoe for farm work, 
Stamped hind shoe for farm work, . 
Stamped fore shoe for railway shunting horses. 
Stamped hind shoe for railway shunting, , 

(8) The Charlier shoe, .... 

(9) Tips. ...00 
<10) Sir F. Fitzwygram's shoe. 



PAGE 

217 
218 
218 
219 
220 
222 
223 
223 
223 
224 
224 
226 
226 
228 
228 
229 
231 
231 
232 
235 

236 
241 
241 
242 

242 
243 

244 
245 

245 

245 
246 
247 
249 
249 
250 
250 
251 
251 
252 
252 
253 
253 
254 
256 
260 



CONTENTS. 



(11) The Turkish or Oriental shoe, , 

(12) Special grooved shoes with rope inlaid, 

8. Changing from one style of shoeing to another, 

9. The shape and fitting of the shoe, 

10. The nails, ..... 

11. Nailing on the shoe, .... 

12. Examination of the horse after shoeing, 

13. Disadvantages of shoeing, 
14 Effects upon hoofs and limbs produced by work on paved 

especially stone paved, streets, 

Chapter III. Forging and cutting. 

1. Forging, 

Special shoes for horses that forge, 
Fullered hind shoe for harness horse which forges and 

wears wall of hind foot, .... 
Diamond- toed fullered hind shoe for harness horse. 
Diamond-toed hind shoe with " toe-spur " for harness 

horse which forges and wears wall of hind foot, 

2. Cutting or striking, ..... 

Special shoes for horses that cut, 
Fullered feather-edged hind shoe (with two calkins) , 
Feather-edged stamped hind shoe (with two nails 

inside toe), . . . , . 

Partially feather-edged fullered hind shoe. 
Partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe, 
Fullered hind shoe, '* set" inside, . 
Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe for harness or 

riding horse, . . . ... 

Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe, • 
Fullered feather-edged concave fore shoe, . 

Fullered hind shoe for hack, . . 

Concave feather-edged hind shoe partially fullered. 
Concave partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe. 
Feather-edged fullered concave fore shoe, 
Concave three-quarter hind shoe. 
Three-quarter partially fullered hind shoe, 

Chapter IV. Leather and rubber soles, etc 

1. Leather soles, 

2. Rubber pads on leather, 

3. Downie & Harris's rubber pad with frog cleft, 

4. Hartmann's removable rubber pad, 

5. Rope pads (fixed), 

6. Straw pads, 

7. Cork pads, 

8. Felt pads, 

9. Pads of elastic cement. 
Chapter V. The shoeing of mules and asses, 



PAGEE 

261 
263^ 
264^ 
26.'> 

272^- 
273: 

27T 
27» 

. 280 

28^- 
282^ 

284 

284 
284- 

285 
28& 
293 
293 

293 
294 
294 
295 

29& 
296^ 
297 
297 
298 
298 
299 
299^ 
300 

301 
30^ 
303 
304 
305- 
307 
307 
308 
30a 
30O 

310 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



Chapter VI. Care of the hoof, 
(a) Treatment of unshod hoofs, 
(6) Care of the shod hoof, 



PAGE 

313 
312 
313 



Section III. — The Shoeing of Diseased Feet and of Lame Horses. 



Chapter I. Inflammation within the hoof, 

Concave bar fore shoe, ..... 

Fullered bar hind shoe (seated around toe) , 

Fullered seated bar fore shoe, .... 

Fullered seated three-quarter bar fore shoe (for harness horse) 

Stamped bar hind shoe (for cart horse) , 

Substitutes for horn, ..... 

Chapter II. Deformities and diseases of the hoof, 

1. Flat sole, . . . . 

Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse). The " quoit " shoe 
Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse) ' ' set ' ' around outer 
margin, ...... 

Stamped hind shoe (for cart horse), 

2. Upright hoof, . ..... 

Stamped cart hind shoe, with toe-piece, . 

3. Special shoes for horses knuckled over at the coronet or 

fetlock, ....... 

4. Contracted foot, ..... 

A. Methods of re-establishing the counter-pressure of the 

ground, or compensating for its absence, 

B. Mechanical methods, .... 

Fullered fore shoe (for harness horse) with frog plate 
Tip for producing frog pressure, 
Professor F. Smith's fore shoe for expanding con 
tracted feet, ..... 

C. Operative interference in contraction, . 

5. The laterally distorted hoof, .... 

6. The curved hoof, ..... 
Chapter III. Solutions of continuity in the horn, 

1. Sand cracks, . .... 

(a) Sand crack originating at the coronary margin, 
(6) Sand crack of the bars. .... 

2. Transverse cracks of the waU, 

3. Loose wall, seedy toe, etc. , . 

4. Thrush, ....... 

Chapter IV. Inflammation of the structures enclosed by the 
hoof, . . . . . . 

1. Pricks in shoeing, ..... 

2. Picked-up nails, ..... 

Stamped cart fore shoe (surgical) with arrangement for 
dressing foot, ...... 



316 
324 
325 
32G 
327 
327 
328 
330 
330 
334 

334 

335 
336 
338 

339 

340 

347 
350 
353 
35a 

354 
355 
360 
363 

365 
365- 
369' 
371 
372 
372 
375 

378 
379 
381 

383 



XU CONTENTS. 

Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for 
dressing foot, ..... 

Plates for surgical shoes, .... 

Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for 
dressing foot, ..... 

Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for 
dressing foot, 

3. Treads on the coronet, . . . . . 

4. Inflammation of the perioplic ring, . 

5. Corns, ....... 

Three-quarter fullered seated fore shoe, . 

Fullered fore shoe ' 'set" on ground surface of inside heel 

6. Shoeing after laminitis, .... 

7. Keratomata, or horn tumors, 

8. Canker of the frog or sole, .... 

9. Ossification of the lateral cartilages. Side bones, . 

10. Navicular disease, ..... 

11. Curb, strain of flexor tendons, and capped elbow, . 

Stamped wedge-heeled hind shoe. 
Fullered wedge-heeled hind shoe for harness horse, 
Fullered patten hind shoe, .... 
Stamped patten (or " staple ") fore shoe, 
Stamped patten (or "staple ") hind shoe. 
Patten hind shoe, ..... 
Fullered seated fore shoe, .... 



APPENDIX A.— THE SHOEING OF OXEN. 

Chapter I. The structure and functions of the ox's foot. 
Chapter II. The shoeing of oxen, .... 

APPENDIX B. 

I. Farriers' teaching schools, .... 
II. Shoeing competitions, ..... 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 



FIG. PAGE 

Berkshire County Council's Schoool, . Frontispiece. 

1. Iron hipposandal, . . . . . . .4 

2. Celtic shoe, .....*.. 6 

3. Shoe from the grave of Childeric, .... 9 

4. 5. The most ancient Northern shoe, . , . .10 
6, 7, 8. Shoes of the Middle Ages, . . . . . 12, 13 
9. Postero-lateral view of right fore foot, . . . .21 

10. Perpendicular mesial section of right fore foot, . . 22 
Colored plate. Section of horse's foot, . . . facing 22 

11. Antero-lateral view of bones of foot, . . . .25 

12. Pastern and sesamoidal bones, . . . . .26 

13. Posterior view of pastern and sesamoid bones, . . 26 

14. Antero-lateral view of coronet bone, . . . .27 

15. Posterior view of coronet bone, ..... 27 
Plate. The bones of the foot, .... facing 18 

16. Antero-lateral view of pedal bone, . c- . .28 

17. Postero-lateral view of pedal bone, . . . .29 

18. Inferior surface of pedal bone, o . . . .29 

19. Antero-superior surface of navicular bone, . . .31 

20. Postero-inferior surface of navicular bone, . . .31 

21. The bones of the foot and their ligaments viewed from the 

side, ........ 34 

22. 23. The bones of the foot and their ligaments viewed from 

behind, ........ 35 

24. Pedal bone, etc. , . . . . . . .39 

25. Antero -external view of right fore foot, . . .40 

26. Posterior view of right fore-foot, .... 42 

27. Right fore-foot seen from behind and slightly from one side, 43 

28. Pedal bone, etc., ....... 46 

29. Right fore foot, ....... 46 

30. Postero-lateral view of pedal bone and inner lateral cartilage, 47 

31. Infero-posterior view of right fore foot, . . .49 

32. Plantar cushion seen from below, . . . .50 

33. Plantar cushion seen from above, . . . ,50 

34. Vertical mesial section of plantar cushion, . . .50 

35. Vertical section of foot from side to side, . . .50 

36. Lateral view of fore foot, . . . . .54 

37. Foot, seen from below and behind, . . . .56 

38. Right fore foot, seen from below, behind, and somewhat from 

one side, ........ 58 

39. Vertical section through the human nail and nail-bed, . 61 



XIV 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



FIG. 

40. Foot deprived of horny capsule, . . . . . 

41. Foot from which the outer portion of the horny wall and the 

greater part of the sensitive structures have been removed, 

42. Horn-secreting papillae from the coronary band, 

43. Lower surface of foot denuded of horny capsule, 

44. Hoof with vascular structures removed, 

45. Under surface of right fore foot, 

46. Under surface of right hind foot, 

47. Mesial vertical section of hoof with horny frog removed 

48. Hoof with portion of wall removed, 

49. Portion of inner surface of hoof where horny wall and horny 

sole join, ..... 

50. Transverse incision through the laminal sheath, 

51. Vertical transverse section of hoof with very thin sole 
53. Left lower part of above section, 

53. Vertical section from s«)le (magnified), . 

54. Horny frog removed from hoof, . 

55. Vertical mesial section of horny frog, 

56. Perpendicular section from horn of wall (magnified), 

57. Horizontal section of wall, 

58. Horizontal section through a part of the wall, . 

59. Horn cells from wall, etc., 

60. Horn cells from sole, etc., 

61. Horn cells from the perioplic ring, 
63. Horn cells from the frog, .... 

63. Cells from horn lamina, .... 

64. Horizontal section of a fragment of cast horn from sole, 

65. Perpendicular section of horn frog, 

66. Horizontal section of horny lamina, etc. , 

67. Cross section of the connecting sheath of the wall, 

68. Transverse section of two horn laminse still connected with 

the middle sheath of the wall, 

69. Vertical cross section of a foot seen from behind, 

70. Vertical cross section of foot seen from behind, 

71. 73. Eight fore foot seen from below and above, 

73. Special forms of rolled bar iron, 

74. Rod way bar, 

75. Single fullered bar, 

76. Bevelled bar, 

77. 78. Concave bar, 

79. Plain concave bar, 

80. Corrugated ' ' Grip " bar, 

81. Charlier steel bar, 

82. 83. Racing plate steel, 

84. Racing plate iron, 

85. Right front shoe seen from below 

86. The same seen from above, 

87. Left hind shoe seen from above. 



PAGK 

69 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



XT 



TIG. 

88. Transverse section of a fore shoe through one of the nail 

holes, .... 

89. Cross sections of four fullered shoes, 

90. German military shoe for fore feet, 
Fireman's tools, ..... facing 141 

^1. Partly completed fore shoe, 

92. Partly completed hind shoe, 

93. Right fore shoe w^th calkins, 

94. Shoe with obliquely cut off heel, 

95. Shoe fitted for removable toe and heel pieces, 
96-98. Heel-pieces (sharp), 
99. Blunt heel-piece, . 

100. Removable toe-piece, • 

101. Removable toe-piece, 

102. Tool for removing old heel-pieces, 

103. Left hind shoe with toe-grip and calkins, 

104. Steel rod with toe and heel grips partly formed, 

105. Frost nail and stubs, 

106. Delperier's frost nail, 

107. Stamp for Delperier's frost nail, . 

108. Section of shoe with Delperier's nail inserted 

109. Outer heel " sharpened," 
ll'O. Inner heel " sharpened," . 

111. Count von Einsiedel's winter shoe for front feet 

112. The same for hind feet, . 

113. Heel of " screwed " shoe with countersunk hole 

114. Anvil for making screws, 

115. Screws (full size) provided with Whit worth thread, 

116. Screw-cutting machine, . 

117. Frost screw with concave sides, . 

118. Frost screws used by the German army, 

119. Mould for making screws, 
120-124. Screws, .... 

125. Taper tap, ..... 

126. Plug tap, ..... 

127. Screw with H-shaped head, 

128. Screw with + -shaped head, 

129. Screw wdth angled head, . . . 

130. Screw with Y-shaped head, 

131. Hollow screw, .... 

132. Perforated screw, , . 

133. Universal screw-key, 

134. Sharp cog, ..... 

135. Blunt cog, ..... 

136. Counter-sink for enlarging holes in shoe, 

137. Round sharp cogs, . 

138. Mould and anvil, .... 

139. Transverse section of toe of grip-shoe for draught horse, 



135 
137 
139 

, 142 
143 

•145 
147 
147 
149 
149 
149 
150 
150 
150 
151 
151 
155 
155 
156 
156 
157 
157 
157 
157 
158 
159 
160 
160 
160 
161 
161 
162 
162 
162 
163 
163 
163 
163 
163 
163 
163 
164 
164 
164 
165 
166 
168 



XVI 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



TIG, 

140. Toe-grip with oval shank and nut, 

141. Transverse section of shoe, 

142. Patent shoe with movable toe-grip, 

143. Normal position of fore limbs, 

144. Turned-out toes, . 

145. Calf -kneed formation, 

146. Pigeon-toed formation, 

147. Normal conformation of limbs as viewed from the side, 

148. Leg over-extended, 

149. Backward incurvation at knee, 

150. Oblique pastern, . 

151. Upright pastern and limb, 

152. Bowing over at knees, 

153. Normal position of limbs, 

154. Hocks turned in, . 

155. Hocks turned out, 

156. Excessively curved hocks, 

157. Entire hind limb placed too far back, 

158. 159. Pair of normal feet seen from in front and from behind j 
160, 161. Form of feet where toes are turned outward, 
162, 163. Form of feet where toes are turned inward, 

164. Foot of normal limb and foot of abnormal limb, 

165. Abnormally flat (oblique) hoof, . 

166. Normal hoof, 

167. Upright hoof, ..... 

168. Two feet viewed from the side, , , 

169. Peculiar distortion, hoof upright, pastern oblique, 

170. Normal progression (showing position of feet), 

171. Mode of progression with turned-out toes, 

172. Mode of progression with turned-in toes, 

173. Lateral view of hoof, normal progression, 

174. Oblique hoof, mode of progression, 

175. Upright hoof, mode of progression, 

176. Normal right fore foot, . 

177. Eight fore foot (out-turned toe), 

178. Right fore foot (in-turned toe) , . 

179. Normal right hind hoof, . 

180. Wide '* spreading" hoof, . 

181. Narrow hoof, 

182. Diagram of proportions of fore foot, 

183. Diagram of proportions of hind foot, 

184. Diagram of proprotions of fore foot (lateral view), 

185. Diagram of proportions of hind foot (lateral view), 

186. Diagram of proportions of fore foot (seen from above), 

187. Diagram of proportions of hind foot (seen from above), 

188. Overgrown and laterally distorted hoof, 

189. Examining style of movement (horse receding), 

190. Examining style of movement (horse approaching), . 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



XVll 



FIG. 

191. Examining formation (lateral view), 

Doorman's tools, . . o . 

193. Arabian shoeing knife, 

193. Section through normal hoof, 

194. Section through hoof with thin sole, . 

195. Section through normal foot, . 

196. Front foot, . . 

197. Right fore-foot of normal and turned-in limb 

198. Vertical section through wall at toe, . 

199. IToof too oblique, 

200. The same hoof properly prepared, 
Colored plate. Hoof prepared for shoeing, 

201. Two feet seen from the side (a, too long a toe; h, too long 

202. Foot axis in oblique foot, 

203. Foot axis in normal foot, 

204. Foot axis in upright foot, 

205. Diagram showing influence of long heels, etc 

206. Diagram showing influence of long heels, etc 

207. Diagram showing influence of long heels, etc 

208. Ewerloff's Podometer, 

209. Fullered front shoe for hack, . 

210. Fullered fore shoe for hack, 

211. Fullered seated fore shoe with thick heels, 

212. Fullered front shoe for hunter, 

213. Lateral view of concave front shoe for hack or hunter 

214. Hind shoe for hunter, . 

215. Temporary shoe with leather boot and straps 

216. Fullered seated fore shoe, 

217. Concave partially-fullered "dub-toed" fore shoe, 

218. Concave fullered feather-edged fore shoe, 

219. Stamped fore shoe, 

220. Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, 

221. Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, 

222. Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, 

223. Charlier hind shoe, 

224. Racing plate, .... 

225. Section of racing plate iron, 

226. Racing plate (fore), 

227. Concave fullered fore shoe (for steeplechasini 

228. Steel fore shoe for trotter with toe-weight, 

229. Steel hind shoe for trotter, 

230. Hind hoof shod with weighted shoe, 

231. Weights seen from front and side, 

232. American toe- weighted shoe, 

233. American quarter-weighted shoe, 

234. Partially fullered fore shoe (for trotters), 

235. Fullered front shoe for carriage horse, ground surface, 

236. Fullered front shoe for carriage horse, foot surface, . 





PAGE 





200 


facing 


203 


. 


204 


^ 


205 


- . 


205 


. 


205 


, 


206 


, 


206 


. 


207 


. 


208 


. 


208 


facing 


208 


heels). 


209 




211 




211 


. 


211 


. 


212 




213 


. 


214 


. 


216 


. 


217 


facing 


218 


i i 


219 


a 


220 


. 


221 


. 


221 


, 


222 


facing 


223 


a 


223 


u 


224 


(( 


224 


(( 


226 


a 


22a 


a 


228 


<•- 


228 


, 


229 




230 


facing 


231 


i( 


231 




232 




23a 




233 




234 




234 




234 


facing 


23.> 




23a 




23T 



:xviii list of illusteations. 

'tlOr. PAGE 

237. Concave fore shoe for carriage horse, . . . 238 

:238, 239. Fullered fore shoe, .... facing 241 

240. " Rod way " fore shoe, . . . . "243 

:241. Thin heeled fullered seated fore shoe, . . facing 242 

242. Fullered fore shoe, . . . . . " 243 

243. Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work) with two calkins, " 245 

244. Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work) with calkin and 

wedge heel, . . . • • • " 245 

:245. Stamped fore shoe for omnibus work, . . " 246 

246. Cart horse hind shoe for town work, . . ' * 249 

247. Cart horse stamped fore shoe for show purposes, . " 250 

248. Cart horse stamped hind shoe for show purposes, . " 250 

249. " North Country " stamped fore shoe, . . "251 

250. "North Country" stamped hind shoe, . . " 251 

251. Stamped fore shoe for farm work, . . . '* 252 

252. Stamped hind shoe for farm work, . . . " 252 

253. Sta^mped fore shoe for railway shunting horses, . "253 

254. Stamped hind shoe for railway shunting, . . " 253 

255. Ordinary tip, . . • . . . .257 

256. Upright hoof shod with a tip, . . . .257 

257. Special knife with stop used in preparing groove for Charlier 

tips, ........ 258 

258. Hoof prepared for Charlier tip, . . . . 258 

259. Hoof shod with Charlier tip, . . . , .258 

260. Stamped fore tip, ...... 259 

261. Sir F. Fitxwy gram's shoe, . . . . .260 

262. SirF. Fitzwygram's shoe, ..... 261 

263. Oriental shoe, . . . . . . .262 

264. Special grooved shoes with rope inlaid, . . . 263 

265. Front shoe rounded at the toe, .... 267 

266. Left hind shoe for horse with turned-in toes, . . 269 

267. Left hind shoe for horse with turned-in toes and contraction 

of outer quarter and heel, ..... 271 

268. Hand-made nails, . . . . . .272 

269. French nails, ..... . . 272 

270. Machine-made nail, . . . . - . . 272 

271. Badly-formed nail head and shank defective, . . . 272 

272. Cross section of a sound and well-shod hoof, . . . 275 

273. Forceps, ....... 276 

274. Right fore shoe with rounded inner edge (forging shoe), . 282 

275. Right hind shoe with two lateral toe-clips (forging shoe) , . 282 

276. Fullered hind shoe for harness horse which forges and wears 

wall of hind foot, ..... facing 284 

:277. Diamond-toed fullered hind shoe for harness horse, . " 284 

278. Diamond-toed hind shoe with " toe-spur " for harness horse 

which forges and wears wall of hind foot, . . facing 285 

279. Examination of horse that strikes, .... 287 

280. Cutting shoe, ground surface, .... 288 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



XIX 



PAOB 

288 
289 
289 
289 
290 
facing 293 
293 
294 
294 
295 



281. Cutting shoe, foot surface, .... 

282. Cutting shoe for left hind foot, 

283. Cutting shoe for right fore foot, 

284. Cutting shoe (right hind) for horse that cuts with the toe, 

285. Shoes for horse that turns the toes out, 

286. Fullered feather-edged hind shoe, with two calkins, 

287. Feather-edged stamped hind shoe,wit]i two nails inside toe, 

288. Partially feather-edged fullered hind shoe, 

289. Partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe, 

290. 291. Fullered hind shoe, "set" inside, . 

292. Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe for harness or riding 

horse, ....... facing 2dQ 

293. Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe, . . " 296 

294. Fullered feather-edged concave fore shoe, , . " 297 

295. Fullered hind shoe for hack, . . . , *' 297 

296. Concave feather-edged hind shoe partially fullered, . ' ' 298 

297. Concave partially -fullered feather-edged hind shoe, . " 298 

298. Feather-edged fullered concave fore shoe, . . " 299 

299. Concave three-quarter hind shoe, , . . *' 299 

300. Three-quarter partially-fullered hind shoe, . . '* 300 

301. Rubber bar pad on leather, ..... 303 

302. Rubber frog pad on leather, ..... 303 

S02a. Downie's rubber pad, ...... 304 

S02b. Showing method of inserting Hartmann's pad, and use of 

tongs, . *...... 305 

303. Hoof surface of shoe with Hartmann's pad inserted, . 306 

304. Sj)ecial shoe for straw or fibre pad, ... * 307 

305. Upper surface of above shoe, ..... 307 

306. Hind foot of ass, seen from below, . . . .310 
307. . Fore foot of ass, seen from below, .... 310 

308. Fore foot of mule, seen from below, . . . , 310 

309. Instruments for cleaning out feet, .... 313 
310,311. Special pincers for examining diseased feet, . . 318 

312. Special "searcher " used in giving exit to pus, . . 321 

313. Bar shoe, seen from above, ..... 323 

314. Concave bar fore shoe, ..... facing S24: 
315,316. Fullered bar hind shoe (seated around toe), . " 325 

317. Fullered seated bar fore shoe, . . . . "326 

318. Fullered seated three-quarter bar fore shoe (for liarness 

horse), ....... facing S27 

319. Stamped bar hind shoe (for cart horse) > . . ** 327 

320. Section of flat hoof with weak sole, .... 330 

321. Special shoe for above foot, ..... 330 

322. Transverse section through a flat-soled hoof with shoe, . 332 

323. Left front foot with inside half of sole " dropped " or convex, 333 

324. Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse). The "quoit " shoe, facing 334 

325. Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse) "set" around outer 

margin, . ...... facing 33d 



339 
341 
341 
341 
351 
352 
352 



XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG, 

326, 327. Stamped hind shoe (for cart horse), . . fachig 33^ 

328. Stamped cart hind shoe, with toe-piece, . . "338 

329. Shoe for *' knuckling over," ..... 339 

330. Special shoe for *' knuckling " associated with obliteration 

of the coronet joint, . . > • • 

831. Strangulation of the frog by the bars, . 

332. Excessive contraction of heels, .... 

333. Unilateral contraction, ..... 

334. Instrument for expanding De Fay's shoe, 

335. Shoe for expanding the hoof, . • • • 
S36. Einsiedel's shoe, seen from behind, 

337. Fullered fore shoe (for harness horse), with frog plate, facing 353 

338. Tip for producing frog pressure, • • . " 353 

339. Professor F. Smith's fore shoe for expanding contracted feet, 354 

840. Contracted hoof from unshod horse, .... 356 

841. Left fore foot with weak heels, .... 357 

842. Foot with local contraction, . . . . . 357 

843. Bar shoe for laterally distorted hoof, .... 361 

844. Right hind foot of foal with three-quarter shoe of unequal 

thickness, ....... 362 

845. Right fore foot showing lateral curvature, . . . 363 

846. Cross section of a right fore foot, showing lateral curvature, 364 

847. Hoof showing sand cracks at coronary and at bearing margin, 365 

848. 349 o o ... 367 

850. Sand-crack strap, . . . . . . . 368 

351. Hoof shod for sand-crack of the toe, .... 369 

352. Hoof shod with bar shoe for quarter-crack, . . . 369 

353. Vertical section of a hoof, ..... 373 

354. Hind foot shod with surgical shoe for retaining dressings, , 381 

355. Shoe for surgical dressing of the foot, .... 382 

356. Cover for shoe shown in previous figure, . , . 382 

357. Stamped cart fore shoe (surgical) with arrangement for 

dressing foot, . . . . . . facing 383 

358. Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for 

dressing foot, ...... facing 383 

359. Plates for surgical shoes, . , . . , " 384 

360. Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for 

dressing foot, . . .... facing 384 

361. 362. Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for 

dressing foot, ...... facing 885 

363. Showing appearance of hoof after long-continued inflamma- 

tion of the perioplic ring, ..... 387 

364. Cross section of the horny and sensitive walls from a case of 

contracted heel, ....... 388 

365. Transverse section of horny and sensitive wall from case of 

corn of the wall, ...... 389 

366. Portion of the inner surface of the wall showing changes 

after old standing corn, ..... 390 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Xxi 

FIG. 

4J67. Ground surface of pedal bone showing bony enlargements on 
the wings (retrossal processes) in consequence of old standing 

corn, 39Q 

S68. Tlii-ee-quarter bar shoe, ...... 393 

369. Ordinary three-quarter shoe, ... . . 393 

370. Three-quarter fullered seated fore shoe, . . facing 395 

371. Fullered fore shoe " set " on ground surface of inside heel, " 395 

372. Longitudinal section of hoof one year after severe attack of 

laminitis, ....... 396 

373. Longitudinal section of hoof three months after attack, . 396 

374. Hoof after laminitis, ..... 396 

375. The same shod, . . , ^ . . . 396 

376. Special broad shoe for laminitis, .... 397 

377. A piece of the toe wall removed, together with keratoma, . 399 

378. Shoe prepared for canker dressing, .... 401 

379. Cover for above shoe, ...... 401 

380. Special shoe for canker, with cover applied, . . . 402 

381. Left fore foot, seen from the outer side, . . . 403 

382. Pedal bone, with ossification of lateral cartilages, . . 404 

383. Right fore-foot altered in form in consequence of side bone, 405 

384. Shoe for above foot, with broad outer limb, . . . 405 

385. Preparation illustrating navicular disease, . . . 407 

386. Showing normal relations of bones of foot and of flexor per- 

f orans tendon, ....... 409 

387. Formation causing increased strain on navicular bone and 

perforans tendon, . . . . . ■ . 409 

388. Showing manner of trimming hoof so as to diminish effects 

of navicular disease, ...... 409 

389. 390. Stamped wedge-heeled hind shee. . . facing 410 

391. Fullered wedge-heeled hind shoe for harness horse, *' 411 

392. Fullered pattern hind shoe, . . . . "411 

393. Stamped patten (or "staple ") fore shoe, . . " 412 

394. Stamped patten (or " staple ") hind shoe, . . " 412 

395. Patten hind shoe, . . . . . " 413 

396. Fullered seated fore shoe, . . . . " 413 

397. Antero-external view of ox's left fore foot, . . . 4l6 

398. Antero-external view of ox's left fore foot, . . . 418 

399. Supero-posterior view of an ox's hoof removed by maceration, 420 

400. Ox's claw wdth shoe attached, ..... 422 



401. Voigtland shoe for oxen, 

402. Travis for cattle, , 

403. Improvised travis, . , 
Berkshire County Council's School, 



. 423 
. 424 

. 425 
facing 427 



Ground plan of buildings for shoeing competition, . . 433 

Index, ........ 435 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



Bergeron, Guide theorique et pratique de marechalerie. Brussels, 1890^ 

Berliner Thierarztliche Wochenschrift. Berlin, Vols, for 1892-7. 

Bracy Clark, On the Horse's Foot. London, 1861. 

Brambilla, Horse-Shoeing. Milan, 1870. 

Delperier, Monographie des ferrures a glace. 1887. 

Der Hufschmied (monthly). Dresden. 

DOMINIK, Lehrbuch tiber Hufbeschlag. Berlin, 1887. 

Douglas, Horse-Shoeing, etc. London, 1873. 

FiTZWYGRAM, Licut.-Gen. Sir F., Directions for Shoeing Horses.. 

London, 1896. 
FOGLIATA, Manuale di Ippo Podologia. Pisa, 1886. 
Giornale della veterinaria militare. 1893. 
GoYAU, Manuel de marechalerie militaire. 
GOYAU, Traite pratique de marechalerie. Paris, 1890. 
Hunting, The Art of Horse-Shoeing. London, 1895. 
Journal de med. vet. de I'Ecole de Lyon. Files for 1890-97. 
Journal de medicine vet. et Zoot. Files for 1890-97. 
Juan A. S. y Rozas, Tratado completo del arte de herrar y forgar.. 

Saragossa, 1879 
Leisering-Hartmann, Der Fuss des Pferdes. Dresden, 1861. 
LUNGWITZ, Der Lehrmeister im Hufbeschlag. Dresden, 1895. 
MoLLER, Prof. Dr., Anleitung zum Bestehen der Hufschmiede-Priifung.. 

Berlin, 1897. 
MoLLER, Prof. Dr., Die Hufkrankheiten des Pferdes. Berlin, 1895. 
Pader, Precis theorique et pratique de marechalerie. 
Peters, Die Formveranderungen bei Einwirkung der Last, etc^ 

Berlin, 1883. 
Peuch and Lesbre, Precis du Pied du cheval et de sa f errure. Paris, 1896^ 
Key, Traite de marechalerie veterinaire. 
Receuil de medicine veterinaire. Files for 1887-97. 
EoBERGE, The Foot of the Horse, etc. New York, 1894. 
Russell, Scientific Horse-Shoeing. Cincinnati, U. S. A., 1895. 
Steglich, Uber dem Hufmechanismus des Pferdehufes. Leipzig, 1883. 
Thary, Marechalerie. Paris, 1896. 
The Veterinarian. Files for 1870-97. 
The Veterinary Journal. Files for 1878-97. 
The Veterinary Record. Files for 1888-97. 
Watrin, Le pied du cheval et sa f errure. Paris, 1887. 



INTRODUCTION '^ 



AND 



HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 



INTRODUCTION^. 

Feom the description of its structure and functions, hereafter 
given, the hoof will be seen to act as a protective covering to 
the sensitive structures of the foot. In the wild horse this 
protection is perfect. In proportion as the bearing surface of 
the hoof wears away, it is renewed from above ; but immediately 
the horse is made to draw or carry on ordinary roads, the hoof 
wears more rapidly than it can be produced. Some artificial 
protection then becomes indispensable, and in almost all 
countries this takes the form of an iron strip or plate, fastened 
to the hoof with nails, and termed a ' shoe.' Everything relating 
to the preparation and application of such means of protection 
comes within the sphere of horse-shoeing, which therefore 
may claim to be both a science and an art. A science, because 
a knowledge of horse-shoeing presupposes an acquaintance with 
the principles and practice laid down by veterinary surgery for 
the maintenance of the hoof in a sound condition, for im- 
proving the faulty, and partially or completely restoring the 
function of the diseased. Horse- shoeing derives from anatomy 
a knowledge of the construction of the foot, from physiology 
relative guidance in treatment, and from surgery an acquaint- 
ance with the methods appropriate to the relief of diseases of the 
foot. Horse-shoeing is an art, because its exponents are handi- 
craftsmen engaged not only in the making of shoes, but in fashion- 
ing them to the foot, the ground surface of which demands careful 
preparation to ensure a correct position of the limb, and there- 
fore normal action, and to secure proper fitting of the shoe. 

A 



2 HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 

The object of shoeing is manifold. It serves to prevent 
excessive wear of the hoof, and in some measure to protect the 
sensitive structures which the hoof contains ; to hinder slipping 
on smooth roads, on ice and snow, and on muddy streets ; to 
improve in certain instances faulty action ; and as an accessory 
in the treatment of diseased hoofs. 

It can rarely be dispensed with, though horses doing light 
work in towns or on land are sometimes sufficiently protected 
by ' tips.' In most cases, however, the shoe should protect the 
entire ground edge of the wall. As growth is then uninter- 
rupted, the normal relations of the hoof to the ground gradually 
change, and it becomes necessary, by occasional judicious trim- 
ming, to restore the hoof to proper shape. This is usually done 
at each shoeing, but is just as necessary in unshod horses which 
are resting. 

Shoeing is by no means the simple affair it appears to the non- 
professional mind. The form of the shoe and the preparation of 
the foot demand endless variation, depending upoA the shape of 
the hoof, the condition of the sole, the quality of the horn, the 
action of the horse, his work and his weight. 

Only when shod, and well shod, can the horse exert his best 
powers ; and any inattention or neglect is followed by injury to 
the hoof, if not by loss of the animal's services. 

In addition to a knowledge of the structure and functions of 
the limb and foot, the farrier must possess bodily and mental 
endowments of an average order, besides experience and 
common-sense. 

He must determine quickly and accurately the necessities of 
each case, and leave little to chance. The completed shoe 
should, in its form, thickness, breadth, length, stamping, and 
seating, bear a proper relation to the hoof, as well as to the 
animal's work and weight, and everything must be done with 
a careful eye to the end in view. 

HISTORY. 

Though much debated, it is still uncertain to whom, or even 
to what race, we owe the invention of horse-shoeing. Accounts 
may be found in medical, veterinary, agricultural, military, archao- 
logical, and other publications ; but having no intention to make 
this their chronicle, we shall give only a short sketch of the subject. 



HISTORY OF HOESE-SHOEING. 3 

Whether the Eomans or Greeks were acquainted with 
nailed-on shoes is undecided ; for though they were aware 
of the insensibility and hardness of the horn, as shown 
by the writings of Homer, Virgil, and Horace, it is well 
known that the horses of Alexander's army suftered severely 
during marches through Asia in consequence of the wearing of 
their feet, and that vast numbers, becoming lame, had to be 
abandoned. Mithridates, King of Pontus (first century B.C.), 
while laying siege to Cycicus, sent his entire cavalry to Bithynia 
for treatment, on account of the manner in which the horses' 
feet had suffered from prolonged marching. 

iSTo Greek or Latin writer on military science, hippology, or 
ao'riculture mentions shoeino- with nailed-on shoes. Veo;etius 

Cj CD O 

Flavius certainly describes the forging of weapons and other 
instruments, bat says nothing of either shoes or nails, as 
probably he would have done had they been used in his time. 

Xor is there the barest indication of a horse-shoe on Trajan's 
Column, on the bas-reliefs of Castor and Pollux, the frieze of 
the Parthenon, on the mounted statues of Pompeii, nor in the 
mosaics representing the overthrow of Darius by Alexander, in 
the Naples Museum. 

A further proof of unacquaintance with nailed-on shoes is 
given by numerous authors of this time, who describe methods 
to render the hoof resistant, and give directions for treating 
excessively abraded parts. 

Xenophon, the general and author, for instance, states : — 
" To render the hoof as hard as possible, the horse should be 
kept on a stone pavement, both when in the stable and when 
in the court being cleaned." Columella recommends oak for 
the floor of the stall, which hardens the hoof in the same way 
as stone. In 1827 an ordinance of Diocletian (303 a.d.) was 
discovered, in which the prices of labour and the necessaries of 
life are fixed, and in which there are two instances of fees for 
the services of the veterinary surgeon (Mulomedicus), viz., for 
clipping the animal and paring the hoofs, 6 denars* ; for groom- 
ing and cleaning the head, 20 denars. Had shoeing been 
known then, it would doubtless have been referred to in this 
edict. 

In spite of the general agreement in selecting horses witli 

* Denar, a Roman coin, which in Diocletian's time equalled about Is. 4^d. 



4 HISTORY OF HOESE-SHOEING. 

hard and rounded hoofs and concave soles, and the care taken 
to improve the quality of the horn, many grades were recog- 
nised, as shown by the terms ungulce, attritw, detritm, suUHtce, 
etc., which continually recur in the writings of Absyrtus, 
Theomnestus, and Vegetius. For baggage horses, Xenophon 
recommends leather soles and shoes. Aristotle speaks of a 
kind of sock which was bound on the feet of camels used in 
war. The Greek veterinary surgeon Absyrtus clearly indicates 
the evils due to the straps by which the soles were affixed. 
Cato suggests that the under surface of draught animals' feet 
should be smeared with fluid pitch to make them more 
resistant. Columella, Theomnestus, and Vegetius describe pro- 
tecting soles or shoes formed of woven broom, reeds, and bast 
{solece spartcce), and fastened to the hoof by straps. Similar shoes 
are still used in Japan. The Eomans also used metal shoes 
{solece ferrece). Suetonius states that Nero took with him on a 
certain journey 1000 carriages drawn by mules shod with 
sandals or soles of silver. Pliny asserts that the mule of 
Popea (wife of Nero) was jjrovided with gold soles. These 
soles, termed hipposandals, etc., are found all over Germany, 
Prance, and England, wherever the Eomans settled. The 
richest discovery was made in 1851 and 1855, during the 
excavations at Dalheim in Luxembourg. 

Hipposandals, though varying in form, usually consist of an 
oval metal plate, prolonged backwards on either side, and 

sometimes carrying a curved 
hook. In front and laterally 
are wings, provided with eyes 
and rings. Others are dis- 
tinguished by the sides being 
bent upwards in front and 
behind, so that when seen 

Fig. 1. — Iron hipposandal, found during the „ i • -i i 

excavation of a Eoman bath near Lazenhansen irom tllC Side tllCV rCSemble 
(Wurtemberg). . ^^ /n -i \ 

an ancient galley (ng. 1). 
Straps passed through these ' clips,' hooks, eyes, and rings, 
fastened the shoe to the foot. It would therefore appear that 
such shoes were only used for slow work, or for animals 
whose hoofs were already excessively worn. This view is con- 
firmed by the rarity of such hipposandals, as compared with 
nailed-on shoes. 




HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 5 

As for the instruments used to shorten over-long feet, we 
know, from the accounts given by Hippocrates, Absyrtus, and 
Vegetius, and by the remains found in Gastra Peregrina, 
Pompeii, and Masium, that tliey were ahnost precisely similar 
to the ' toeing-knife ' of the present day. 

In general, the horse-shoes of both these classical peoples 
were neither practical nor perfect. 

The Celts, however, are credited, especially by French investi- 
gators, with having employed nailed-on shoes before the opening 
of the Christian era, and having extended their use throughout 
Gaul, Germany, and England. Though described by the 
Eomans as barbaric, these people excelled in such occupations 
as agriculture, mining, shipbuilding and sailing, commerce and 
art. The Gauls and other Northern races of this period hoped 
to resume their work after death, and therefore buried weapons 
and other property, and even favourite horses, along with their 
dead. From such remains archasologists liave been able to 
determine the habits and customs, and even the industries of 
these ancient races. Amongst articles discovered have been 
horse-shoes. 

The French palseontologist Capstan, during excavations on 
the site of the ancient town of Alesia (in the Department of 
the Cote d'Or), found, in addition to wheel tyres and horses' 
bones, fragments of bronze horse-shoes, worn through at the 
toe, and a collection of nails, the heads of which resemble 
violin pegs. The same observer, in examining a Celtic barrow, 
found buried in a quantity of ashes the bones of men, horses, 
pigs, and bears, and beneath them a triangular file, a portion of 
a flat file, a chisel, masses of iron dross, a piece of bronze 
casting, an iron buckle, an iron hammer about five pounds in 
weight, an iron ring, and part of a small horse-shoe, with a 
nail attached. The remains were mixed with broken fragments 
of rude Celtic pottery. 

Between the French towns of Langres and Dijon, where 
most probably the last battles which preceded the siege of 
Alesia (b.c. 52), and delivered Gallia into the hands of 
Csesar, were fought, relatively large numbers of small fullered 
shoes have been found at a depth of 2 to 3 feet. Some 
carried nails resembling in form a Ptoman T, which were 
provided with clenches, showing how the shoes were fastened 



6 



HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 



to the feet. Similar shoes have been found in Celtic monu- 
ments by the French palcieontologist Foquet, the Swiss Troyon, 
and others. Quiquerez discovered some in the Bernese Jura, 
buried in an earthen mound along with horses' bones, and, from 
the evidence furnished by the superincumbent earth, referred 
them to the sixth century B.C. 

All these shoes are characterised by six large roundish nail- 
holes, opposite each of which the border of the shoe is bulged 
outwards. There are shoes with and shoes without heels ; but 
all are very small and weak (about ^V ^^^^ thick, and |- to ii 
inch broad). They vary in weight from 3 to 3^ ounces, and 
their shape is irregular and defective. The nail-heads are flat, and 
rounded off towards the side. The shanks are short, four-sided, 
tapering, and always pointed, showing that the nail was not 
cut and clenched after driving, but simply turned over and 
beaten flat on the horn. According to Veterinary-Surgeon 
Mathieu, however, other shoes of a more modern stamp exist. 
They have been found at Alesia, at Mont-Auxois, at Ancy le 
Franc, and in the valleys of La Brenne and L'Armengon. In 
1871, on the occasion of erecting new buildings at the Sevres 
porcelain factory, careful excavations were carried out, at the 
suggestion of Mathieu, who hoped to find similar shoes, it 
being known that the Gauls under the command of Camu- 
logenus, who were defeated by Labienus, had fled towards 
Meudon, through the Sevres valley. The search was successful, 
shoes being found at a depth of about 9 feet. 

It is therefore clear that nailed-on shoes were in use before 

the Eoman subjugation of Gaul, and 
that several forms of shoe were made ; 
while it seems probable the art was 
known at more than one centre, and 
that if the Gauls were not the actual 
inventors of nailed-on shoes, they at 
least were the first to practise the art 
of horse-shoeing. At that time the very 
light, slender shoe was fastened with- 
out the use of clips, the hoof was not 
pared, and the nails were simply turned 
over. It is believed that the Druids made and fastened on 
the shoes for the Gallic warriors. 




Fig. 2.— Celtic shoe 
(after Megnin). 



HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 



The period comprised between the Eoiiiaii conquest of Gaul 
and the fall of the West Eoman Empire in 47G, termed by the 
French the Gallo-Eoman period, affords however other examples 
of shoes. These are found in great numbers in the ruins of 
this period, associated with coins, weapons, and various other 
objects, and many are to be seen in the principal museums of 
Germany, France, Belgium, and England. They resemble those 
of the Celtic period, and have the same bulging opposite the 
nail-holes, but are larger and heavier (weighing from 6 to 9 
ounces), and therefore appear destined for larger and heavier 
horses. This might seem to indicate that the breeds of horses 
were undergoing improvement. The nails had smaller heads, 
the shanks were always quadrangular, the point never cut, but 
folded over on the hoof, either in a straight line, or else in the 
form of a ring. The clenching was incomplete, and resembled 
that practised at the present day by certain nomad tribes and 
by the Eastern nations. 

The shoes found in Switzerland, Germany, and Belgium 
usually show a distinct fullering, and six to eight nail-holes. 
The outer border is somewhat bulged, as in the plain shoes. 
The toe is wide. Many shoes have narrow thick heels, or even 
calkins. Occasionally there is a toepiece. 

In the museum at Avignon is a bas-relief of the second 
century. It represents two horses drawing a carriage contain- 
ing three persons — the driver with his whip, a man in Gallic 
costume, and a lictor provided with his staff of office. The 
shoes, and even the nails, on the fore-feet of one horse are 
quite clearly visible. In the Louvre Museum, Paris, there is 
a bas-relief of a carriage with horses, the first of which is shod 
on all four feet. The nails are clenched. The general appear- 
ance recalls the time of the first Emperor. 

The horses of the Eoman patricians were not invariably 
shod, in many cases the front-feet alone being so protected. 
According to French authors, some of the peoples, more especi- 
ally those of German origin, included in the Eoman Empire, 
possessed the art of shoeing. The references to shoeing during 
this period are obscure, and often repose on the evidence of 
fables and songs. According to one account, St George (who 
lived about the end of the third century), while in pursuit of 
a dragon, lost a shoe, and continued the chase until his horse's 



8 HISTORY OF HOKSE-SHOEING. 

foot bled. This would indicate that shoeing was known about 
that time in Germany. A shoe, said to be the one in question, 
is still exhibited in the Mcolai Church in Leipzig. 

The obscurity as to the origin of shoeing was somewhat dis- 
sipated by the discovery of shoes in the Eoman fortress of 
Saalburg, near Homburg, in 1870. The castle was built by 
Drusus a few years before the birth of Christ, and remained 
more or less continuously in the hands of the Eomans until the 
last quarter of the third century. The shoes there found 
exhibit calkins in some cases, and are provided with four to 
eight nail-holes. Whether these shoes belong to a Eoman or 
a Germanic race of this period is still doubtful. The heels of 
those unprovided with calkins present a certain resemblance to 
the heels of interfering shoes, — that is, they are deep, and 
narrower at the ground than at the hoof surface. The shoe 
figured * is one quarter of the real size, shows no fullering, is 
from "I inch to 1^ inch broad in the web, 4 to 5 inches long, and 
3 to 4 inches broad over all, — that is, it is below medium size. 

Many authors believe that certain tribes in Africa, Asia, and 
Eastern Europe were already acquainted with and practised 
horse-shoeing before the dwellers in the Eoman Empire. Thus, 
in the East, the Mongols claim to have shod with iron since 
the earliest times. Their shoes resemble our bar shoe, save in 
being fastened by three clips instead of nails. The Arabian 
shoe is said to be merely a modification of this Asiatic pattern, 
with the single difference that it is fastened with nails. (Com- 
pare Bouley and Eeynal, Dictionnaire de MMecine VSUrin, 6.) 

Shoeing was more widely practised in the Middle Ages. 
The oldest shoe of the Merovingian time is that from the grave 
of Childeric, King of the Franks (died 481), which was found 
in 1653, together with other remains. It was, however, so 
injured by rust that on being grasped it fell to pieces, — the 
larger piece has been completed in the figure (fig. 3). 
Beckmann, and afterwards Eueff, doubted whether this had 
been a shoe. Eueff, who claimed that it was a portion of a 
saddle frame, supports his case as follows : — 

" So many other portions of harness were present, such as 
bits and stirrups, that it seems possible the saddle was also 
interred. Is it not straining the point to believe that, in a grave 

* Gohausen and Jacobi (Das Romercastell Saalburg). 



HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 




iSJ 



Fifl. 3.~Slioe from the grave of Childeric, 
King of the Franks. 



where only a horse's head was found and no remains of feet, shoes 
should have been mcluded as something of particular value ? " 

The view advanced by Paieff, that the shoes were added by 
the Alemanni, seems much 
more probable, because they 
were addicted to the consump- 
tion of horse-flesh, and there- 
fore had better opportunities 
of discoverino- the formation 
of the different portions of the 
foot (?) ; and also because the 
horse being to them an indis- 
pensable means of transport in 
war, they would make it a 
special study, and seek for a 
more practical method of shoe- 
ing than the hipposandals of 
the Romans. The excavations 

of the battlefields of the Alemanni, near Ulm, support this 
view. Bueff continues : — 

" Compared with other antique shoes, it is narrower at the toe, 
is unprovided with calkins and toepiece, and has six nail-holes, 
the punching of which has somewhat bent the outer border of 
the shoe. 

" In examining the graves of the pre-Christian Alemanni, 
Hassler found one containing the remains of weapons, and 
close to it a horse-shoe. This has some resemblance to other 
antique horse-shoes found in the same country ; it is broad at 
the toe, has three nail-holes and quadrangular calkins. The 
graves date from the middle of the fourth to the end of the sixth 
century." 

Next to this shoe must be placed one found, together with 
four smaller shoes, at a place of sacrifice near Cavannes, in 
Switzerland. 

In the eighth and ninth centuries horse-shoeing was practised 
in the Scandinavian peninsula, although in quite a different 
manner. Professor Dr Olof Pehrson Bendz of Alnarp, South 
Sweden, states that these shoes, called broddar,* consisted of a 
kind of cramp with forward prolongations, the points of which 

* Brodd. (Swed. ) = Frost-nail ; broddningeu = to shoe. 



10 



HISTORY OF HOESE- SHOEING. 



were driven through the wall of the toe and clenched (figs. 
4 and 5). This shoe was found in the so-called " Schwartzen 
Bodenart," 18 inches below the surface ; also in different cairns. 





Figs. 4 and 5.— The most ancient Northern shoe, seen from hi front and from below, 
piece or grip ; b, points which were driven throngh the wall of the toe. 



a, toe- 



in Scandinavia, and in Christian graves, as well as in the Viking 
ship discovered in Sandefiord, Norway. The horse's skeleton 
which was excavated had a similar shoe on each foot. In 
certain parts of Finland these shoes are still used, under the 
name of Biskari* So far as we can judge, this broddar shoe 
was intended more to prevent slipping than for general use. 

The first written descriptions of shoeing are found in the 
Military Kegulations of Emperor Leo IV, of Constantinople 
(ninth century), in which crescent-shaped shoes with nails are 
specially mentioned. French investigators believe that the 
farrier's art was introduced into the West Eoman Empire at 
the time of the barbaric invasion by some Germanic race. 

After the ninth century shoeing with nails became general, as 
is shown by precise references. According to Goyau and others, 
the old law-books like the Code Venedotien, Sachsenspiegel, and 
Gottesfrieden contain passages referring to horse-shoeing. 

Duke Boniface of Tuscany, on his marriage in 1034, had his 
horse shod with silver shoes. In 1130 the horse of the 

* Lungwitz refers to a very old Finnish slioe which was sent to him by Herr 
Grossman, teacher of farriery in Dorpat. It is only a semicircle, and seems to 
have been used for the outer half of the hoof. It has a low calkin at either end, 
and was fastened with nails. 



HISTOKY or HOESE-SnOEING. 11 

Norwegian King Sigard the Crusader was shod with cresceut- 
shaped golden shoes on his entry into Constantinople. 

Father Daniel, however, states in his writings on horse- 
shoeing, that the hoof was only shod in frosty weather, or when 
exposed to special wear, as in travelling. 

The history of Sicily shows that shoeing was known there 
in the eleventh century. At that time Sicily was held by the 
Saracens ; and when they disagreed amongst themselves and 
went to war, the weaker party called in the aid of Grecian 
cavalry. The combined forces defeated their opponents, who 
in retreat threw behind them sharply-pointed spikes, in order 
to hinder the pursuers. But " the horses' feet were so shod 
that the spikes could not injure them, nor impede the pursuit.'" 

William the Conqueror is said to have found horse-shoeing 
practised in England on his arrival in 1066, but others believe 
he introduced it. He commissioned one of his noblemen, 
Wakelin von Ferrariis, whom he promoted to be Count of 
Ferrers and Derby, to superintend and encourage the art of 
farriery. The shield of the Ferrers family carries six black 
shoes on a silver ground. Their castellan at Oakham, in the 
county of Eutland, has the privilege of demanding a horse-shoe 
as tribute from every nobleman or baron of the Kingdom on his 
first journey through the town. The shoes, together with the 
giver's name, are affixed to the door of the castle.* 

In the year 1214 references are made to the art in French 
history. On the occasion of bringing Count Ferrand of Flanders 
to Paris as a prisoner, it is mentioned that " four well-shod 
horses " drew Ferrand's carriage, — a proof that shoeing was 
then known. After this time it is frequently referred to, as in 
the works of Eufo in 1492, of Laurentius Eusius, who in 1531 
wrote a work on veterinary science, in which he devoted 
especial attention to shoeing, the treatment of deformed feet, 
and to injuries from nails ; and especially of Cesare Fiaschi 
(first edition, 1539), and of Carlo Euini in 1598. 

Fiaschi describes and figures shoes for many varying purposes, 
his illustrations being the first in the literature of farriery. 
This author distinguishes not only between front and hind shoes, 
but between right and left, and between shoes with and without 

* This right is still in existence, and was exercised as late as the present year 
(1897).— Jno. a. W. D. 



12 



HISTORY OF HOKSE-SHOEING. 




Fig. 6. 



heels and toepieces, hinged shoes and shoes with rounded toe. 
He already makes a clear difference between toe, quarter, and 
heel clips. He employs shoes with rings in the heels in order 
to give increased shoulder action. It, therefore, seems right to 

regard Italy as the 
country of origin of 
systematic horse-shoe- 
ing. 

In Germany the art 
attained prominence 
towards the end of the 
sixteenth century. 
Seuter of Augsburg in 
1598 published a book 
on the medical care of 
animals, in which are 
described special shoes 
for the treatment of 
contracted feet. 

Most of the ancient 
horse-shoes found in 
Germany resemble 
more or less those 
shown in figs. 6, 7, and 
8. The broad shoes 
are often described as 
Swedish, though it is 
by no means proved 
that this form origin- 
ated in Sweden. On 
the contrary, ac- 

FlGS. 6 and 7.-Shoes of the Middle Ages (about the 13th COrdmg tO Schmid of 
century), found in excavating foundations for the Mnnioh brnarl c;hnpc; 
Gymnasium at Borna in 1876. iviuilicil, uiUdU blioeb 

had been employed in 
Germany for a long time before the invasion from Sweden. 

In France, in the seventeenth century, appeared Solleysel's 
Parfait Mar^chal This book was translated into many 
languages, but, according to Veterinary-Surgeon Megnin, was 
only a paraphrase of Fiaschi's work. Solleysel's shoe is 
moderately broad, and provided with eight nail-holes, placed well 




HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 



13 



forward. The author was the first to notice the slipper-shoe, 
with its bearing surface inchned outwards, named after De la 
Broue. In Germany, during this century, horse-shoeing was 
only slightly touched on in veterinary works, — the Thirty Years' 
War retarding the development and advance of science. With 
the institution of veterinary schools in the eighteenth century, 
the farrier's art once more rose to prominence, mainly owing 
to the discoveries in connection with the anatomy and 
physiology of the horse's hoof. Towards the close of the 
eighteenth century the literature of farriery received many 
important addi- 



tions; and the 
improvement of 
horse - breeding, 
due to the intro- 
duction of Ori- 
ental blood, had 
an indirect though 
sensibly beneficial 
action in advanc- 
ing the art. 

In France, dur- 
ing the course of 
the eighteenth 
century, a work 
on horse - shoeing 

was published by Lafosse the elder, in which was recommended 
a special shoe, — thick at the toe, thinner towards the heels, flat 
on the ground surface, and provided with eight nail-holes, equally 
distributed throughout its extent. Lafosse clearly recognised 
the advantage of allowing the frog to touch the ground. To 
minimise slipping on smooth pavement, he suggested a system 
of shoeing which presents a striking likeness to the Charlier 
method, introduced a hundred years later. In 1768 Bourgelat, 
the founder of the first veterinary school at Lyons, described 
with great exactness the proportions for fore-shoes, and the 
height of the heels and toepieces. His shoe is long and 
trough-shaped ; and when seen from the side, presents a certain 
resemblance in outline to a boat. While the French owe to 
these two authors a large debt of gratitude for their efforts in 





Fig. 8. 



14 HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 

perfecting horse-shoeing, other European nations have to thank 
English veterinarians of the end of the eighteenth and beginning 
of the nineteenth centuries for much of the improvement then 
observable. Up to the end of last century the farrier's craft 
depended upon very defective anatomical knowledge, while it 
had absolutely no physiological basis. Shoeing was done by 
rule of thumb. 

J. Clark first drew attention to the elasticity of the hoof, 
and was followed by Osmer, Coleman, Moorcroft, and Goodwin, 
who invented shoes differing completely from those previously 
employed. Most of these were fashioned with a knowledge of 
the elasticity of the hoof, as is shown by their horizontal and 
seated-out foot surface ; Goodwin's is the only shoe concave on 
the ground surface, but like the others it shows a completely 
level bearing for the hoof and a rounded toe. 

Goodwin was the first to use seven, instead of eight nail-holes, 
four being on the outer and three on the inner side, as shown 
in his illustrations. 

The greatest impression, however, was produced by Bracy 
Clark's writings on the general anatomical formation of the 
foot and the elasticity of the horny box. This author 
advanced the theory of the expansion of the posterior portion 
of the hoof during movement, and the simultaneous sinking of 
the frog and flattening of the sole, from which originated many 
new views and experiments. On it he founded the use of a 
shoe hinged at the toe, by which he sought to allow of expan- 
sion and contraction when weight was placed on or removed 
from the foot. Although his shoe met with little acceptance, 
Clark rendered great service by drawing attention to the 
injurious contraction of the foot which followed the existent 
system of shoeing. He advocated turning out horses unshod 
in order to promote expansion of the foot, and made important 
contributions to the study of laminitis. His views on the 
changes of form produced in the hoof by pressure were adopted 
by the Germans and French, and provided a scientific basis for 
the practice of farriery. 

Until the middle of the present century the German horse- 
shoe was almost always provided with calkins and usually 
exhibited eight nail-holes. It was very broad, and had open 
heels, the inner of which was about one- third thinner than 



HISTORY OF HOKSE-SHOEIXG. 15 

the outer heel. In short, it was far from coiiformmo- to the 
shape of the hoof, and had many bad points. Well -formed 
shoes, like well-formed hoofs, were rare ; and whilst in many 
parts of England great progress had been made, Germany con- 
tinued in the old ways. Only Hanover, which for a lon<^ time 
had been under English influence, presented any exception. 
The hoof was prepared for the shoe to such a degree that the 
sole could be indented with the finger, and w^as excessively 
weakened. The toe was usually left too long in proportion to 
the heels, and heavy badly-shaped shoes which pinched the heels 
were applied. Even model shoes of this period exhibit many 
defects. In spite of a number of good books on farriery, such as 
those of Dieterich, Gros, and Straus, in which the functions and 
anatomy of the foot are described, the art of farriery was much 
ne^iected, and farriers, as a class, were wantincp in the knowledoe 
necessary to combine science with practice. 

At the beginning of 1840 an attempt was made to introduce 
from France the method of hot fitting, and the use of Eiquet's 
podometer, but although previously employed for many years 
in the French army, these w^ere soon given up in Germany, 
because of their unpractical nature. Xor did Pauly's attempt 
to dispense with nails meet with any greater success. 

In 1852 a further stimulus to the art was given by English 
influence in Miles's Iroclvure on The Horse's Hoof, and lioio to 
hee]) it Healthy, the 7th edition of which was translated by 
Guitard. This book gradually produced an entire change of 
views. Miles was the first to show how the shoe should be 
fitted to the foot, and how it should be made in order to 
preserve the elasticity of the hoof when shod : he recommended 
six nail-holes, but used only five nails ; and he suggested round- 
ing the toe, so as to conform to the natural wear of the hoof. 
Although much of his teaching is erroneous, his writings liave an 
enduring value. Even at the present day their influence can 
be distinctly seen in the shoeing system of the Austrian army. 

In Saxony, Hartmann's atteinpts to break with old tradi- 
tions are w^orthy of notice. Hartmann and Leisering's work 
on the horse's foot, published at Dresden in 1861, produced a 
marked impression, both on account of the excellent illustrations 
relating to the anatomy and physiology of the foot, and of the 
principles set forth in the second part for the practice of 



16 HISTOEY OF HOKSE-SHOEING. 

shoeing. Hartmann's shoe resembled the English in regard 
to its fullering and seating, but its fitting and bearing surfaces 
were more like the French pattern. This author maintained 
the importance of the frog bearing weight. Count von Ein- 
siedel, a contemporary of Hartmann, took up the purely 
physiological position. The system of shoeing named after 
him is based on the views of the English authors Miles and 
Eield. He recommended for front-feet a heelless shoe, of equal 
breadth throughout, the ground and bearing surfaces horizontal, 
well seated out, moderately rounded at the toe, and having 
somewhat finely punched nail-holes ; for hind-feet the ' inter- 
fering ' shoe. His exertions largely contributed to the improve- 
ment of shoeing in Saxony and Prussia. 

Charlier's system, inaugurated in 1865, which consists in 
sinking the shoe in the wall of the hoof, thus surrounding the 
hoof like a ferrule, produces precisely the opposite effect to 
that desired. Instead of preserving the hoof it destroys it. 
Goodenough's method, published in 1869, was less injurious, but 
only suited to particular purposes. Its object was to promote 
the natural function of the horny sole and frog. The shoe has 
five prominences on its ground surface. In 1879 this method 
was revived, without, however, achieving any great success. 

Dominik took up a purely theoretical standpoint in regard 
to shoeing. He believed that the wall of the hoof should 
always be supported at right angles by the upper surface of the 
shoe. The idea, however, is not practicable. Nevertheless, his 
observations on the action of animals before and after shoeing:, 
and his demonstrations, proved of great, service. 

Since 1869 various methods of roughing have been introduced, 
and have proved almost indispensable in cold countries. The 
American, Judson, invented the round frost cog. Dominik 
made some, but preferred the quadrangular form, as being 
simpler to produce. Since that time both varieties have been 
successfully employed. 

But no improvement in farriery can be of service until incor- 
porated in the daily practice of the shoeing-smith ; and, abroad, 
this has only been possible since the foundation, in the middle 
of the present century, of colleges for the instruction of farriers. 
Previous to this, only students attending the Veterinary Colleges 
had received instruction, but at the present time special in- 



HISTOKY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 17 

stitutes exist throughout Germany, having trained teachers and 
a thorough syllabus, in which theory and practice are united. 
The first School of Farriery was erected at Gottesaue, near 
Karlsruhe, in 1847. In Saxony the military authorities soon 
followed suit, and to provide capable shoeing-smiths for the 
army, military farriers were, in 1849, appointed to the position 
of teachers of horse-shoeing in the Veterinary School at 
Dresden. The same arrangement still exists. Since 1853 
courses of instruction in horse-shoeing for civil farriers have 
been given in Hanover, and since 1857 in Dresden. From 1858 
to 1869 the authorities in Saxony imposed an examination, 
that is to say, every person who wished to practise farriery 
was obliged to pass an examination in the Eoyal Veterinary 
School. In 1860 Count von Einsiedel's School of Farriery was 
appointed the Government School for Upper Lusatia. Since 
1864 H. Behrens has conducted a teaching school in Eostock. 
Military schools of farriery were founded in Berlin in 1868, 
in Konigsberg in 1874, in Breslau in 1875, in Hanover in 1886, 
and in Bockenheim, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, in 1890. In 
1870 the school at Altona was opened, and in 1877 the Agri- 
cultural Union at Griefswald founded one in that town. In 
Bavaria the first military school arose in 1874. Schools for 
civilians existed in Munich and Wlirzburg in 1875. In 
Austria there are military institutions of this kind in Vienna, 
Briinn, Olmlitz, Prague, Lemberg, Graz, Laibach, Buda-Pesth, 
Comorn, Temesvar, and Hermannstadt ; schools for civilians in 
Vienna, Lemberg, Graz (1883), Klagenfurt, and Laibach. In 
addition, classes are occasionally held in different districts. 

Similar institutions exist in Denmark, Sweden, Eussia, and the 
Balkan Peninsula. They teach shoeing, promote and encourage 
exhibitions of farriery, carry out competitions, etc., and their 
objects are set forth in special publications, such as Der 
Hufschmied. The great importance attached to good shoeing 
by the German Government is shown by the fact that the 
Imperial law of 1883 allows the allied States to make it 
incumbent on all persons engaged in the practice of farriery 
to possess a certificate of examination. In consequence, all the 
countries included in the German Empire have passed similar 
laws and have instituted schools. 

In regard to horse-shoeing. Saxony has again attained the 

B 



18 HISTOKY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 

position which it occupied before 1869. Since the political 
renaissance of Germany, and especially since the foundation of 
an Imperial Patent Office in Berlin, the farrier's art has been 
the subject of a great number of discoveries and inventions. In 
every department novelties have been introduced. Iron is no 
longer considered sufficient for shoeing : organic materials, such 
as leather, cloth, oakum, rubber, gutta-percha, felt, wool, straw, 
horn, cork, wood, and so on, have been used, either alone or in 
combination with iron, and inventions continue to be produced. 

The efforts to prevent the many evils inherent in our 
methods of shoeing are well indicated by these devices, which 
aim at minimising strains, slips, and injuries to the limbs. 
Patents are exceedingly numerous. Many refer to movable 
toepieces and heels and to nailless shoes. There are also 
shoes to be applied with cement, shoes with special nails, and 
shoes to insure regular distribution of weight, etc. 

The methods of shoeing have thus become so numerous that 
the ordinary farrier, and even the veterinary surgeon, can 
scarcely keep himself informed as to what is or is not of value, 
the more so as no critical treatise has yet appeared on the 
subject. Many of these discoveries are absolutely worthless ; 
many more are exceedingly questionable. Very few are really 
valuable or of great promise, but machine-made nails, various 
forms of rubber pads, and, especially, machine-made shoes mark 
undoubted advances. The reason so few of these inventions 
are of real worth is the difficulty of exactly fitting them to the 
foot. The majority of inventors have incorrect impressions of 
horse-shoeing, and especially of the formation of the foot, other- 
wise they would certainly have spared themselves the pains, 
time, and money which they have expended. 

It is much to be regretted that the only body in England 
claiming to be representative of farriery, viz., the Worshipful 
Company of Farriers of London, when in 1890—91 carrying 
into operation a scheme for the registration of shoeing-smiths, 
omitted to put into operation the most promising clauses of 
their published programme, and instead of assisting practical 
teaching or apprenticeship, or founding one or more teaching 
schools, substituted a short theoretical examination under which 
hundreds of farriers (sic) were enrolled. The attention of the 
public was drawn to the matter, and a reorganisation attempted. 



HISTORY OF HOUSE- SHOEING. 19 

but unfortunately not until confidence in the value of the 
Company's certificate had been lost. This is the more un- 
fortunate, as it must, for many years to come, have a most 
prejudicial effect on any effort made to improve the farrier's 
art in England. 

Considering the scope and difficulties of the art of shoeing, 
it is desirable that the efforts made during the last fifteen years 
by the Royal Agricultural Society and other bodies to produce 
good practical and theoretical farriers should be still further 
extended, so that the workman may fit and apply the shoe 
with knowledge of the effect it will produce on the foot and 
limb. Without awarding the preference to any particular 
system of shoeing, it may be said that that most deserves it 
which least alters the condition and form of the hoof, which 
is simplest, and which adapts itself most readily to varying 
requirements. 



PART I. 

THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 
OE THE FOOT. 



SEOTIOI^ L 
THE STRUCTUEE OF THE FOOT. 



GENERAL REMARKS ON THE HORSE'S 

FOOT. 

The lower portion of the horse's limb is called the foot. As 
the horse is of little value to man except as a beast of draught 
or burden, and as the lower portions of the limbs are chiefly 
concerned in movement, the foot is one of the most important 
parts of the horse's anatomy. The reason the horse's foot is 
subject to so many diseases is to be sought in the strains and 
many injurious influences to which it is exposed both when 
the animal is at rest and when moving, and also in the injury 
done by defective shoeing and ignorant attempts at treatment. 
Many diseases could be avoided if the foot were regarded not 
as a dead mass but as a living and highly organised portion 
of the limb, which would not lightly bear interference and 
unnatural treatment, while many more would be more easily 
and rapidly cured if the structure and functions of the parts 
were clearly kept in view. 

It is, therefore, very desirable that owners and attendants 
should have some knowledge of this portion of the animal's 
anatomy, while to the shoeing-smith, whose duty it is to keep 
sound feet healthy, and to the veterinary surgeon, who has to 
convert diseased into sound feet, a thorough acquaintance with 
it is an absolute necessity. 

20 



GENEKAL KEMARKS OX THE HORSE'S FOOT. 



21 



The parts of the limb to be included under the term " foot " 
depend on the purpose with which the expression is employed. 
Some persons regard " foot " as including only the portion of 
the limb enclosed in the horny capsule. Others, again, extend 
the term to those structures in the horse which correspond 
to the foot of man, that is, the metatarsus or metacarpus 
and all below it, though, according to this view, the horse's 
fore-foot should include the knee, and the hind-foot the hock 




Fig. 9.— Postei'o-lateral view of right fove-foot. A, lower end of metacarpus ; 
B, fetlock joint; C, suffragin is or pastern bone; B, coronet; E, hoof; F 
and F', outer and inner bulb of the lieel ; G, small corneal growth at back 
of fetlock. 



joint. Leiserings definition, which is here followed, covers 
more than the portions surrounded by the horny capsule, 
though holding it unnecessary to take into consideration the 
entire limb from the knee or hock. It includes the fetlock 
joint and parts of the limb below, i.e., the structures correspond- 
ing to the finger or toe of man. 

These parts are represented in fig. 9. 



22 



THE STRUCTURE OF THE FOOT. 



Externally we distinguish the lower end of the metacarpus 
(A) ; the fetlock joint (B) ; the suffraginis (C) ; the coronet (D) ; 
the hoof and parts included therein (E) ; and the bulbs of the 
heels (Fy 




Fig. 10.— Perpendicular mesial section of right fore-foot (tlie position of the lower 
bones is shown rather too upright). A, lower end of great metacarpus ; B, suffra- 
ginis or pastern bone ; C, inner sesamoid bone (to render the bone visible, a portion 
of the intersesamoidean ligament has been removed) ; D, coronet bone ; E, pedal 
bone ; F, navicular bone ; a, extensor pedis tendon ; b, superior sesamoidean or sus- 
pensory ligament ; b', inferior sesamoidean ligament ; c, flexor pedis perforatus 
tendon ; c', great sesamoid sheath ; d, flexor pedis perforans tendon ; e, capsular 
ligament of the fetlock joint ; /, capsular ligament of pastern joint ; g and g', 
capsular ligament of coffin joint ; h, bursa of flexor pedis perforans ; i, plantar 
cushion ; i', portion of plantar cushion forming the bulbs of the heel ; k, coronary 
band ; I, sensitive wall ; m, sensitive sole ; n, sensitive frog ; o, horny wall ; p, 
horny sole ; g, horny frog ; r, ergot at base of fetlock ; s, skin. 

At the first glance the horse's foot, as represented in fig. 
9, might appear to one who had not studied its construction 
to be exceedingly simple. By making a perpendicular mesial 



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GENERAL REMARKS ON THE HORSE'S FOOT. 23 

section of the foot, however, as shown in fig. 10, the 
erroneous character of such a conchision is evident, and yet this 
section exhibits only a few of the structures constituting the 
foot. In order to become acquainted with the form and func- 
tions of the foot, one must study each part separately and in 
a certain order. 

Many writers on the liorse's foot begin with the external 
parts and gradually proceed to the deeper seated. With some 
care all the anatomical structures can thus be demonstrated on 
one foot, but much then remains doubtful which would certainly 
be clear by observing the opposite process ; for this reason we 
commence our description of the foot with the bones. 



CHAPTEE I. 

THE BONES OE THE FOOT. 

We have agreed to consider the horse's foot as beginning at 
the fetlock joint, and have, therefore, to study (1) the lower 
end of the great metacarpus ; (2) the suffraginis bone ; (3) the 
two sesamoid bones; (4) the coronet bone; (5) the pedal bone; 
and (6) the navicular bone. The relations of these bones are 
shown in fig. 11, and those of the bones to surrounding parts 
in fig. 10. 

1. The Lower End of the Great Metacarpus. 
(Eigs. 10 and 11, A.) 

The metacarpus or cannon is the long bone which begins at 
the knee, and is continued downwards in an almost perpen- 
dicular direction to the fetlock joint. Its lower end presents 
an articular surface extending from side to side, covered with 
articular cartilage and rendered irregular by three prominences 
and two depressions. The middle prominence or ridge extends 
furthest forward, and is the highest both in front and behind. 
The lateral prominences are broader, and are separated from 
the middle prominence by two shallow depressions. At the 
sides of the lower end of the metacarpus are two rough grooves 
for the attachment of ligaments. The articular surface is in 
contact with that of the os suffraginis both in front and below, 
while behind and below the joint is completed by the anterior 
surfaces of the sesamoid bones. 

2. The Suffraginis Bone or First Phalanx 
(Eigs. 10 and 11, B ; Eigs. 12 and 13, A) 

Extends between the great metacarpus and coronet bone or 
second phalanx in an oblique direction downwards and forwards, 

24 



THE SUFFRAGINIS BONE. 



25 



and forms with the metacarpus an angle of about 130 to 140 
degrees. In the liind-limbs this angle is greater than in the 
fore, being usually about 150 degrees. The suffraginis hone is, 
roughly, one-third 
the leno'th of the 
metacarpus, though 
a slight difference 
exists in this re- 
spect between the 
fore and hind limbs, 
the metacarpus 
being somewhat 
shorter than the 
metatarsus. The 
suffraginis bone is 
divided into an 
upper, middle, and 
a lower portion. 

The upper 
portion is the 
strongest, and pre- 
sents an articular 
surface (fig. 12, a), 
w^hich is sur- 
rounded by a 
somewhat promi- 
nent border. It 
responds exactly 

to the anterior half of the lower extremity of the metacarpus 
or metatarsus. The centre of its articular surface presents a 
marked depression for the middle prominence of the metacarpus 
or shin bone, and on either side two shallow depressions for the 
lateral prominences of the shin bone. The mass of bony tissue 
forming the upper part terminates on either side in a prominence 
directed backwards and outwards, to which the ligaments of 
the joint are attached. 

The middle portion possesses an anterior, a posterior, and two 
lateral surfaces. The anterior is slightly rounded and fairly 
smooth ; the posterior is flatter, and exhibits a well-marked 
roughened triangle (fig. 13, a). This runs from each uf the 




Fig. 11.— Autero-lateral view of bones of foot. A, lower end of 
metacarpus ; B, pastern ; C, outer sesamoid ; D, coronet ; E, 
pedal bone. 



26 



THE BONES OF THE FOOT. 



lateral prominences already mentioned in a downward direction 
almost as far as the lower end of the bone. The triangular 
surface thus formed is rough for the insertion of ligaments. 
The lateral surfaces of the bone are rounded and very rough 
towards the base. 

The lower end of the bone is smooth and covered with carti- 





riG. 12.— Pastera and sesamoideal bones 
seen from same point as fig. 10. A, 
pastern ; B, sesamoid bones ; a, upper 
articular surface of pastern ; b, do. of 
sesamoids ; c and d, rough surfaces for 
insertion of ligaments; e, lower arti- 
cular surface. 



Fig. 13.— Posterior view of pastern 
and sesamoid bones. A, pastern ; 
J5, sesamoids ; a, rough triangle for 
ligamentous insertion ; b, surface 
forinsertion of superior sesamoidean 
ligament ; c, surface covered (in 
life) by intersesamoidean ligament. 



lage. Its centre presents a slight depression (fig. 12, e), and on 
either side a prominence, the inner being somewhat larger than 
the outer and projecting rather further backwards. Above 
these prominences are rough surfaces for the insertion of liga- 
ments (fig. 12, d). 



3. The two Sesamoid Bones 
(Figs. 10 and 11, C ; Figs. 12 and 13, B) 

Are small rounded pyramidal bones lying at the back of the 
lower portion of the great metacarpus. They appear to con- 
tinue the suffraginis bone. Each has three surfaces, a summit 
and a base. The anterior surface (fig. 12, h) is slightly concave, 
almost triangular, and covered with articular cartilage. The 
opposed borders of the two bones are so rounded off that when 
in position they enclose a groove corresponding to and con- 
tinuing the central groove on the upper end of the suffraginis 
bone. The two sesamoids, combined with the suffraginis bone, 



THE COROXET BONE. 



27 



form a surface which responds to that of the great metacarpus, 
with which they are in contact. The outer surface of the 
external sesamoid and the inner surface of the internal are 
very rough, and show marked depressions for the insertion of 
hgaments. The two remaining surfaces of the hones (fig. lo,c) 
are convex and smooth ; in front they are in contact, posteriorly 
they recede more and more from each other, and when in 
position form a groove filled with cartilage in the living animal, 
over which the flexor tendons play. 

The upper end or apex is pointed and formed by the con- 
vergence of all three surfaces. The lower end or base is 
rounded off. 

4. The Coronet Bone or Second Phalanx 
(Figs. 10 and 11, I) ; Figs. 14 and 15) 

Lies below the suffraginis but above the pedal and navicular 
bones. It is approximately one-half the size of the suffraginis. 
In form it resembles a cube, slightly compressed from before to 




Fig. 14. — Antero-lateral viewof coronet 
bone, a, upper articular surface ; b. 
anterior surface ; c, lateral surface ; 
d, lower articular surface. 




Fig. 15.— Posterior view of coronet 
bone, ff , smooth facet, over which 
the flexor pedis peiforans tendon 
glides ; b, lower articular surface. 



behind. It, therefore, presents six surfaces. The upper and 
lower are for articulation ; the upper shows two lateral depres- 
sions and a very slight central prominence ; the lower (figs. 14 
and 15, h) in this respect resembling the lower end of the 
suffraginis bone, two lateral prominences and a central depres- 
sion. The anterior edge of the upper articular surface exhibits 
a broad, low projection. Towards the sides this edge is 
sharp, behind strong and rounded ; powerful ligaments are 
attached to it. Behind is a smooth area (fig. 15, a), which 
serves as a gliding surface for the flexor pedis perforans tendon. 
The anterior and posterior surfaces (figs. 14, h, and 15) are, when 



28 



THE BONES OF THE FOOT. 



healthy, tolerably smooth, and are perforated with a multitude 
of little holes. The lateral surfaces (fig. 14, c), on the other 
hand, are always rough. 




5. The Pedal Bone or Third Phalanx 
(Figs. 10 and 11, E] Figs. 16, 17, 18) 

Is the lowest bone of the foot, and is entirely surrounded by 
the hoof and by soft tissues. It presents three surfaces, three 

prominences, and three borders. 
The anterior surface responds to 
the wall of the hoof (fig. 16, a, 
and fig. 17). In general, it takes 
the same form as the hoof, that 
is, it is convex from side to side, 
is crescent-shaped, and runs 
obliquely downwards and for- 
¥m i6.-Anrero-iaterai view of pedal wards or outwards. The autcrior 
^l,.;'^ZS^^I^^^S^ parfc of the upper border shows a 
rSv^n^oned^^^^^^^^^ i^arked prominence, which has 

been called the coronoid process, 
but has been more correctly de- 
scribed as the pyramidal process of 
anatomists. The backward continuation of the outer surface 
forms on either side a process, termed the wing of the pedal 
bone (fig. 16, c.c). 

The coronoid or pyramidal process is the highest point of the 
pedal bone ; from it the borders gradually descend backwards 
towards the wings. Each of the wings is marked by a deep 
depression, the preplantar groove, which extends forwards to 
about the centre of the quarter, where it disappears. This 
surface is pierced by a large number of holes and fine grooves 
giving the bone an appearance somewhat resembling pumice- 
stone. 

The upper surface (fig. 16, 5, and fig. 17) is for articulation 
with the coronet bone, but being too small to engage with the 
whole articular surface of that bone, it is completed behind by 
the navicular bone. As a whole, this upper surface is crescent- 
shaped, and falls rapidly away in a backward and downward 
direction. The centre shows a slight prominence, the sides 



which in cases of "sidebone" Is often 
converted into a foramen. The portion 
of the wing above this is termed the 
basilar, that below the retrossal pro- 
cess ; e, preplantar groove. 







To face p. 28.] 



THE PEDAL BONE. 



29 




Fig. 17.— Postero-lateral view of pedal bone ; in this tigure 
the entire upper surface is not visible. B, inner lateral 
cartilase. 



shallow depressions. On the posterior edge of this surface is a 
narrow elongated facet, to which the navicular bone is applied 
(fig. 24). The lower or plantar surface (fig. 18) is slightly 
concave, so that when the bone is resting on a plane only 
the external margin 
actually touches it. 
This surface presents 
two half-moon-shaped 
portions, of which the 
posterior is smaller 
and thrust into the 
anterior. The anterior 
(fig. 18, a) is covered 
by the sensitive sole 
and is fairly smooth ; 
at the back, however, 
where the body of the 
bone becomes continuous with the wings (fig. 1 8, h), it is rough 
and full of holes. The posterior, and smaller, portion appears 
as though cut out of the anterior; and the border (fig. 18, c) 
which divides it from the anterior part is rough for the insertion 
of the flexor pedis perforans ten- 
don. In the centre, close behind 
this border, is a protuberance con- 
sisting of firm, bony substance, 
and serving for the insertion of a 
ligament. 

On either side of this protuber- 
ance is the mouth of a canal (fig. 
16, d), the plantar foramen, from 

which a groove, termed the plantar fig. is.— inferior surface of pedal bone. 

c> ' X ^^^ anterior portion covered in life by 

groove, runs. These canals are sensitive sole; ?>, wing of pedal bone; 

"-' . . , . the part shown is retrossal process ; c, 

continued into the interior of the rough crescent-shaped portion for in- 
sertion of flexor pedis perforans ; n, 

pedal bone and meet, formin^^ a plantar groove leading to e, plantar 

■^ . . , „ , . , . foramen. 

semicircle, irom which are given 

off in various dire(3tions numerous small secondary canals. The 
grooves, holes, and canals permit of the passage of blood-vessels 
and nerves (compare fig. 38). 

The coronoid or pyramidal process, already mentioned, serves 
for the insertion of the extensor pedis tendon. The two wings 




30 THE BONES OF THE FOOT. 

of the bone are most widely separated at the back (fig. 16, d). 
Each wing is divided by a notch, continuous with the pre- 
plantar groove, into an upper and lower portion, though in old 
horses the two parts may be united by exostoses, and instead 
of a notch a hole alone exists. To the wings are attached the 
lateral cartilages (fig. 17, B), which we shall afterwards describe 
more fully. It not unfrequently occurs that these cartilages 
become ossified, especially at their point of origin, causing the 
wings of the bone to appear much larger than they really are. 

The three borders of the pedal bone are : an upper, a lower, 
and a posterior. The upper border runs from one wing to the 
other, first in a forward and upward, then in a downward and 
backward, direction, and divides the articular from the anterior 
surface. It is continued over the pyramidal process, and is 
somewhat excavated and rough on either side for the insertion 
of ligaments. 

The lower border divides the anterior from the plantar surface, 
and is sharp and well-defined. Its centre point often shows a 
slight notch. As the os pedis is somewhat inclined in the 
normal position of the hoof, as shown by the section (fig. 10), 
the anterior part of this border is the lowest portion of bone 
in the limb. Just above the border are a number of large 
holes for the passage of arteries. 

The posterior border divides the articular from the plantar 
surface, and runs obliquely from one wing of the os pedis to the 
other. Posteriorly, it is in contact with the navicular bone. 

6. The Navicular Bone. 
(Fig. 10, F, and Figs. 19 and 20.) 

This is a short, transversely elongated bone placed between the 
wings of the pedal bone, articulating with the posterior edge of 
its upper surface, and assisting to form the cavity for the recep- 
tion of the lower end of the coronet bone. It possesses an 
anterior and a posterior surface, an upper and a lower edge, and 
an inner and an outer extremity. 

The anterior surface is also directed slightly upwards, and is 
covered with articular cartilage. A vertical ridge divides the 
surface into two unequal portions, the inner of which is the 
larger ; both are concave, and with the ridge continue posteriorly 



THE NAVICULAR BONE. 



31 





Fig. 19. — Aiitero- 
superior surface 
of navicular 
bone. 



Fig. 20.— Postero-inferior 
surface of navicular 
bone. a, anterior 
border ; b, tendinous 
surface. 



the conformation of the articular surface of the pedal bone. 
The posterior surface is more extensive than the anterior, and it 
looks downwards as well as backwards. Generally it resembles 
the anterior, but is not so smooth. Over this surface the flexor 
pedis perforans tendon plays. Of the two edges the upper is 
less extensive, rough and porous in appearance, and receives 
the insertion of the postero- 
lateral lioaments of the coffin 

O 

joint. (To be afterwards de- 
scribed.) The lower edge is 
divided into two portions — 
one, the anterior, carries a 
narrow, elongated smooth 
area for articulation with the pedal bone, the other, or posterior 
portion, is rough, showing the openings of numerous small 
canals, and provided for the insertion of the interosseous liga- 
ment that binds the navicular to the pedal bone. The two 
extremities of the bone, inner and outer, are bluntly rounded 
and tapering, and show nothing worthy of note. 

The foregoing remarks on the bones of the foot apply equally 
to the fore and hind extremities. It need only be remarked 
that the bones of the hind foot are somew^hat longer and more 
slender than those of the fore. The posterior os pedis, being 
laterally compressed, has a more upright appearance, while its 
plantar surface is more concave than that of the fore-limb. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE LIGAMENTOUS STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 

The tissues connecting the bones of the foot are termed liga- 
ments. The capsular ligaments surround all the bony elements 
of the joint like a sheath or capsule, and consist of two super- 
posed layers. 

The external layer is firm and fibrous, and in certain of the 
joints is exceptionally developed. It may be regarded as a 
prolongation of a portion of the periosteum from one bone to 
another. 

The inner or synovial layer is a soft, delicate, and vascular 
tissue, which clothes the interior of the outer sheath, and is 
intimately connected with it. This sheath, however, is not con- 
tinued on to the articular surface of the bone, as was formerly 
supposed, and, therefore, does not form in itself a closed sack. 
Its function is to secrete the fluid which lubricates the joint 
and facilitates movement. This fluid is mucoid and sticky, 
closely resembling egg-albumen, is of a yellowish- white or 
yellowish-red colour, and is termed synovia or joint oil. 

The lateral and other ligaments consist of whitish, glistening, 
fibrous material, and form strong bonds of union, varying in 
thickness and length, between one bone and another. They 
possess enormous strength, so that they rarely rupture, the 
bones into which they are inserted usually breaking more 
readily than the ligaments. Their points of attachment on the 
bones are usually rough and uneven. 

The joints we have been considering are known as gingly- 
moid or hiuge-like, and only permit of flexion and extension. 
Movement is certainly considerable, but only occurs in one 
plane. Lateral displacement is either impossible or only 
practicable in a very slight degree. Such articulations may be 
compared to those of a pocket-knife or of a door. In a gingly- 

32 



THE FETLOCK JOINT. 33 

moid joint a convex surface glides upon a concave surface (the 
two surfaces being more or less adapted one for the other). 

To facilitate this backward and forward movement it is 
necessary that the surfaces be smooth, and that they be 
lubricated. Both requirements have been provided for in the 
most complete manner. The articular surfaces are covered by 
cartilage, which, whilst very smooth, possesses a certain elas- 
ticity. The lubricating fluid is supplied by a peculiar secreting 
membrane, which we shall consider later. 

The horse's foot presents the following joints : — (1) the fetlock 
joint ; (2) the coronet joint ; (3) the pedal joint. The ligaments 
are shown in figs. 21 to 23, to which the under-mentioned 
letters refer. 

1. The Fetlock Joint. 

In this joint the lower end of the metacarpus forms the 
upper articular surface. The upper end of the suffraginis bone 
and the anterior surfaces of the sesamoid bones are so combined 
that the articular surface of the suffraginis forms the anterior, 
the sesamoid bones the posterior, portion of the lower articular 
surface. To attain the necessary strength, this joint is provided 
with numerous strong ligaments. 

{a) All the bones which contribute to the formation of the 
fetlock joint are enclosed by a synovial membrane (fig. 10, e). 
This surrounds the lower end of the great metacarpus and the 
upper end of the suffraginis bone throughout their entire extent, 
but in the case of the sesamoid bones is only inserted around the 
articular borders. Behind, a portion extends between the great 
metacarpus and the superior sesamoidean ligament : its walls 
are very thin. Anteriorly, however, between the metacarpus 
and suffraginis bones the walls are thick, and are attached 
at either side to the lateral ligaments. Another part of this 
capsule closely surrounds the flexor tendons. 

(h) The great metacarpus and suffraginis bones are con- 
nected by an inner and an outer lateral ligament. Each of these 
consists of a comparatively weak, superficial layer, which arises 
from the lateral surface of the lower end of the metacarpus 
and extends to the middle of the suffraginis bone, and of a 
deeper, short but very strong, layer, whicli arises from the 

c 



34 



LIGAMENTOUS STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 



depression at the lower end of the metacarpus, and becomes 
attached to the rough spot on the side of the upper end of the 
suffraginis bone, and partly also to the excentric surface of the 
sesamoid. 

(c) The connections between the sesamoid bones are much 

more complicated 
than those of the 
bones hitherto re- 
garded. 

(1) The sesamoid 
bones are connected 
with one another by 
means of an inter- 
sesamoidean liga- 
ment (b). This con- 
nection is so strong 
as almost to convert 
the two sesamoids 
into one mass, and 
to render movement 
between them out of 
the question. 

The inter-sesamoi- 
dean ligament con- 
sists of very strong, 
fibrous tissue (with an 
admixture of white 
fibro-cartilage), the 
fibres of which run 

Fig. 21 shows the bones of the foot and their ligaments obliquelv bctWCCn 
viewed from the side, figs. 22 and 23 viewed from behind. •, . 

The letters indicate same parts in each figure, a, exter- the Opposino" SUrfaCCS 
nal lateral ligament of pastern joint ; 6, intersesamoidean ^ 

ligament ; c, superior sesamoidean ligament ; d, middle and Completely fill 
limb of inferior sesamoidean ligament ; d', lateral limb of r J 

do.; e, cruciate ligament ;/, lateral sesamoidean ligament; 
g, outer lateral ligament of the pastern joint; h and h', 
posterior corono-suffraginal ligaments ; i, outer lateral 
ligament of pedul joint ; k, postero-lateral ligaments of 
navicular bone ; I, fibrous sheath of synovial membrane of 
coffin joint. 




Fig. 21. 



the space which 
would otherwise exist 
between the bones. 
This tissue is pro- 
longed upwards above the sesamoids, forming an oval mass 
which posteriorly is somewhat concave and markedly exceeds in 
size the sesamoid bones themselves. The posterior surface is 
very smooth and permits of the tendon of the flexor pedis -per- 



THE FETLOCK JOINT. 



35 



forans and of the encircling fibres which tlie flexor pedis perfor- 
atus gives to the perforans at this point, gliding freely over it. 
(2) Above, the sesamoid bones are attached, or perhaps we 
should say slung, through the medium of the superior sesa- 
moidean or suspensory ligament (c, and fig. 10, h, and fig. 25, h). 
This is a very strong tendinous cord, the substance of which 




Fig. 22. 



Fig. 23. 



always presents more or less muscular tissue, for which reason 
it has been termed the fiexor suffraginis. It is, in reality, a 
modified interosseous muscle. 

Its upper end is attached, in the fore-limb, behind the knee, 
in the hind-limb, behind the hock, and becomes continuous 



36 LIGAMENTOUS STEUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 

with the other ligaments covering the posterior surfaces of 
these joints. From this point it runs downwards immediately 
in contact with the posterior surface of the metacarpus, lying 
between the two small metacarpals. At the lower third of the 
metacarpus it divides into two portions, which become attached 
to the corresponding surfaces of the sesamoids. From this 
point each division gives off a considerable reinforcing band, 
which runs in an oblique direction downwards and forwards, to 
become continuous with the extensor pedis tendon at the front 
of the suffraginis bone. This is the " ligamentum extensorum " 
of Percivall. 

(3) The sesamoid bones are attached below by two ligaments, 
the inferior sesamoid ean ligament and the cruciate ligament. 
The inferior sesamoidean ligament {d and cV, and fig. 10, h') is 
a strong band, in which three parts may be distinguished. The 
middle portion (d) (superficial inferior sesamoidean hgament of 
M'Fadyean) is the most superficial ; it arises at the lower .end 
of the two sesamoid bones and runs, more or less covering the 
two lateral portions, with which it is connected by a few fibres, 
in a downward direction to be inserted into the strong posterior 
margin of the upper surface of the coronet bone. Here it 
becomes intimately united with the two limbs of the flexor 
pedis perforatus tendon, forming one mass. 

The two lateral limbs {d^) (middle inferior sesamoidean liga- 
ment) arise from the lower part of the sesamoid bones, run 
downwards and inwards, converging at an acute angle. They 
become attached to the posterior surface of the centre of the 
suffraginis bone, and extend downwards to near its lower end, 
covering the already described rough triangle on the posterior 
surface of that bone. 

The cruciate ligament (e) (deep inferior sesamoidean ligament), 
formed of flat crossed fibres, closely applied to one another, is 
covered by the lateral limbs of the inferior sesamoidean liga- 
ment. The fibres themselves arise from the upper part of the 
posterior surface of the suffraginis bone, and, after crossing, end 
at the lower part of the sesamoid bones. 

(4) Towards the sides the sesamoid bones are attached by 
the two lateral sesamoidean ligaments (/). These arise from 
the lower part of the corresponding surface of the sesamoid 
bones, and divide into two portions, the upper becoming attached 



THE PASTERN JOINT. 37 

in the ligamentous pit of the lower end of the metacarpus, the 
lower to the side of the upper end of the suffraginis bone.* 



2. The Pasteen Joint, 

Consisting of only two articular surfaces, the lower end of 
the suffraginis and the upper end of the coronet bones, is the 
simplest joint of the foot. The suffraginis bone possesses a 
convexity, the coronet bone a corresponding concavity, which is 
completed at the back by tendinous and ligamentous structures. 
The ligaments of the coronet joint are : — 

(1) A capsular ligament, or rather, a synovial membrane 
(fig. 10,/), attached to the borders of the respective articular 
surfaces. Its outer sheath is anteriorly and laterally fairly 
strong, in front it is attached to the extensor tendon of the 
foot, and laterally to the lateral ligament ; posteriorly to the 
cartilaginous mass formed by the tendons and ligaments there 
inserted, at which point it is very thin and lax. 

(2) An inner and an outer lateral ligament (g). These are 
short, but fairly strong, bands, arising from the sides of the lower 
end of the suffraginis bone, and being attached to the lateral 
surfaces of the upper part of the coronet bone. They are con- 
tinued downwards and backwards as the postero-lateral liga- 
ments of the coffin joint, and each eventually is inserted into 
the end of the navicular bone of its own side, and into the 
wing of the os pedis. 

(3) The posterior corono-suffraginal ligaments are four in 
number. The two central (^) arise from the sides of the rough 
triangle at the posterior surface of the suffraginis bone about 
its centre ; between them lies the lower part of the central 
limb of the inferior sesamoidean ligament (superficial inferior 
sesamoidean ligament). The lateral [h') arise from the sides of 
the suffraginis boue, about its lower third, and are in contact, 
on either side, with the terminal branches of the flexor pedis 
perforatus tendon. They are weaker than the central, and are 

* Prof. Mettam considers it is doubtful if the lateral sesamoidean ligament 
divides into two portions. He prefers rather to look upon that directed upwards, 
as here related, as a portion of the lateral ligament of the fetlock joint, and the 
lower portion inserted into the sesamoid as the true lateral sesamoid ligament. — 
[Jno. a. W. D.] 



38 LIGAMENTOUS STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 

covered by strands of tissue that act as a check ligament to the 
flexor pedis perforans, with which they are usually so inti- 
mately united that they might be regarded as belonging to that 
ligament. 

As already indicated, these ligaments at their insertion into 
the posterior part of the coronet bone combine intimately with 
the central limb of the inferior sesamoidean ligament and with 
the terminal portions of the flexor pedis perforatus, so as to 
form a single mass and to permit only of artificial separation. 

3. The Pedal or Coffin Joint 

Is formed by the union of the articular surfaces of three bones. 
The convexity is formed by the lower articular surface of the 
coronet bone, the concavity by the upper surface of the os pedis 
and by the navicular bone. 

(a) All three bones are united by a synovial membrane 
(fig. 10, g), which, as in other joints, surrounds the articular 
surfaces of the joint. The outer sheath is strong in front, where 
it is firmly united to the extensor tendon. Behind, the capsule 
is distended so as to form a kind of blind sac (fig. 10,/), which 
extends upwards behind the coronet bone. At this point its 
outer sheath is very thin, but between the navicular and pedal 
bones it is strengthened by fibres which run from before back- 
wards, and which are so well-marked as to present the appear- 
ance of a special ligament, which has been described as the 
inferior navicular ligament or interosseous ligament. 

(h) The coronet and pedal bones are connected by an inner 
and an outer lateral ligament (i) (antero-lateral ligaments, 
MTadyean). These ligaments are excessively strong ; they arise 
from the ligamentous furrow at the sides of the coronet bone, 
run somewhat obliquely backwards and downwards to end in 
special pits on the upper border of the pedal bone, flanking 
on either side the pyramidal process. Posteriorly, they are 
bounded by the lateral cartilages, in the tissues of which they 
are lost. 

(c) The navicular bone is connected with the suffraginis 
and pedal bones and with the lateral cartilages. 

With the suffraginis bone by means of the postero-lateral 
ligaments or suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone (7c, 



THE PEDAL JOINT. 



39 



and fig. 24, h). These arise in common from the posterior 
border of the navicular bone, which is completely occupied 
by them, extend upwards on either side in an oblique direc- 
tion over the lateral surfaces 
of the coronet bone, to which 
they are partly attached ; and 
end on the anterior part of the 
lower extremity of the suffra- 
ginis bone, becoming united 
with the lateral ligaments of 
this and of the coronet bones. 
These ligaments sustain the 
navicular bone in position. 
The navicular bone is further 
connected with the pedal bone, 
and especially with the lateral 
cartilages, by what German 
anatomists term lateral liea- 
ments (fig. 24, c). These con- 
sist of short but strong masses 
of ligamentous tissue, which 
run obliquely from the ends of 
the navicular bone to the 
lateral cartilage of either side, 
to which and to the wings of the pedal bone they become 
attached. They are really but extensions of the postero-lateral 
ligaments, and the most important connecting ligament between 
the pedal and navicular bones is undoubtedly the interosseous. 
The pedal joint permits of slight lateral movements. 




Fig. 24.— J., pedal bone ; B, lateral cartilage 
cut through horizontally at the level of the 
pedal joint ; a, surface, formed by pedal and 
navicular bones, for articulation with coronet 
bone ; 6, postero-lateral ligaments of navi- 
cular bone cut through ; b', portion of above 
which are attached to back of navicular 
bone ; c, the lateral ligament of navicular 
bone of the German anatomists. 



CHAPTEE HI. 



THE LOCOMOTOR APPARATUS OF THE FOOT. 



The extremity of the horse's limb possesses no muscular 

tissues, and the struc- 
tures which move the 
bones of the foot act 
through the medium 
of long, powerful ten- 
dons. In the front 
limb the muscles 
themselves are situ- 
ated above the knee 
and around the fore- 
arm, in the hind above 
the hock and around 
the leg or, as it is 
sometimes called, 
second thigh. In 
construction and in 
the arrangement of 
their tendons, which, 
for our purpose, alone 
demand considera- 
tion, there is no 
essential difference 

Fig. 25.— Antero-external view of right fore-foot, a, exten- between the forC and 

sor pedis tendon ; 6, superior sesamoidean or suspensory -i • i t i rT^^ 

ligament; b', prolongation of sup. -sesamoidean lig. (lig. nind limbs. iJie 

eztensoriim) ; c, extensor suffraginis tendon. „ 

movements of the 
bones of the foot occur in two directions. Movement for- 
wards we term extension, movement backwards, flexion. The 
extensor tendons lie in front of, the flexor behind, the bones 
of the limb. 

40 




the extensor pedis tendon. 41 

1. The Extensor Pedis Tendon. 
(Fig. 25, a.) 

The snffraginis, coronet, and pedal bones have one common 
extensor tendon. In the fore-limb the snffraginis bone also 
receives a special tendon, the extensor snffraginis, which lies 
alongside the extensor pedis tendon on the outer face of the 
limb, and is inserted into the upper part of the snffraginis. 

The extensor pedis tendon runs downwards over the front of 
the great metacarpal bone and of the fetlock joint towards the 
lower end of the os snffraginis, where it receives on either side 
an important reinforcement, from the superior sesamoidean liga- 
ment (fig. 25, h'), which increases its width to 1|- or 2 inches. 
It then passes over the pastern joint, the coronet bone and 
coffin joint, and is inserted into the pyramidal process of the 
OS pedis. It is attached to all the bones of the foot, with the 
exception of the navicular, and to the anterior surfaces of their 
capsular ligaments, while it is held in position both by the rein- 
forcing bands received from the superior sesamoidean ligament 
and by the band-like ligaments which run to it from the 
lower end of the snffraginis bone. 

The masses of muscle of which the extensor pedis tendon is 
a continuation are termed the extensor pedis muscle. 

2. The Flexor Pedis Perforatus Tendon 
(Figs. 26, h, and 27, a) 

Courses down the posterior surface of the great metacarpus, 
and covers the other flexor tendon. At the point where the 
two sesamoid bones form a gliding surface (fig. 26,/), the tendon 
becomes broader and flatter, somewhat concave on its anterior 
surface, and some of its fibres form a ring (fig. 26, h'), by which 
it is attached to the flexor pedis perforans (a^^^), which lies 
immediately in front of it. It then passes behind the snffra- 
ginis bone, still covering the perforans tendon, and somewhat 
below the middle of this bone divides into two limbs (figs. 26, h", 
and 27, h), permitting the passage of the perforans tendon, and 
becomes attached on either side to the lateral surface of the 
coronet bone. At this point it is difficult to divide the tendon 



42 



LOCOMOTOR APPARATUS OF THE FOOT. 



from the ligaments, with which it forms a most intimate con- 
nection. A smaller portion extends 
to the lateral surface of the suffra- 
ginis bone just above its lower end. 
The tendon, therefore, acts not only 
on the coronet, but also on the suffra- 
ginis bone. 



3. The Flexor Pedis Perforans 

Tendon 

(Figs. 26, a, 27, c) 

Is described by German anatomists 
as arising in the fore -limb from five, 
and in the hind-limb from three 
masses of muscle. During its course 
behind the metacarpus, it is rounded 
and lies between the perf oratus tendon 
and superior sesamoidean ligament. 
It passes through the ring formed by 
the perf oratus tendon (fig. 26, &'), 
glides over the articular surface of 
the sesamoid bones, here losing its 
rounded shape, and becoming broad 
and double-edged, next makes its way 
through the opening formed by the 
division of the perforatus tendon (fig. 
27), here being in contact with the 
smooth surface formed by the fibrous 
mass clothing the posterior surface 
of the coronet bone (fig. 26, e), and 
being marked on its anterior surface 
by a crescent-shaped prominence 
(fig. 26, a^'), to which the synovial 
sheath is attached ; it then proceeds 
as a broad fan-shaped tendon (fig. 
26, a') over the navicular bone (c), as 
over a pulley, completely covering 
the bone. At this point it exhibits 
a deep furrow, corresponding to the 




Fig. 26. — Posterior view of right 
fore-foot, a, lower end of flexor 
pedis perforans tendon cut through 
and drawn downwar<Js ; a', ex- 
panded portion which becomes 
attached to pedal bone ; a", depres- 
sion for reception of the rounded 
prominence of the navicular bone ; 
a'", isolated section of flexor pedis 
perforans tendon surrounded by 
tendinous ring b' ; b, flexor pedis 
perforatus tendon ; 6', its fibrous 
ring ; b", its terminal limbs, be- 
tween wliich passes the flexor p. 
perforans tendon ; c, navicular 
bone ; d, its postero-lateral liga- 
ments ; e, posterior face of coronet 
bone, over which glides the per- 
forans tendon ; /, gliding surface 
formed by intersesamoidean liga- 
ment ; g, superior sesamoidean or 
suspensory ligament; g' , its in- 
sertions into the sesamoid bones. 



THE FLEXOR PEDIS PERFORAKS TEXDON. 



43 



prominence on the lower surface of the navicular bone. Finally, 
it is inserted into the entire surface bounded by the half-moon- 
shaped space already described on the 
lower surface of the pedal bone. The 
lower part of its posterior surface rests 
in a special space (fig. 27, c), on the 
plantar cushion. 

The flexor tendons, like the extensors, 
are held in place from behind by special 
check ligaments, which fasten them to 
the bones of the foot. These consist — 

(1) Of a broad, strong, annular liga- 
ment, which arises from the sides of 
the sesamoid bones and surrounds the 
perforatus (fig. 27, d, and fig. 31,/). 

(2) Of a mass of fibrous tissue at- 
tached to the skin, which embraces the 
perforatus tendon below the fetlock 
joint like a girdle (fig. 27, d^). It is 
attached by its two upper and stronger 
limbs (fig. 27, d^^) to either side of the 
upper end of the os suffraginis behind 
the lateral ligament ; its two lower, 
weaker limbs are inserted on the sides 
of the lower third of the suffraginis bone. 
Above, this fibrous mass unites with the 
annular ligament, and its central portion 
is, in general, very intimately connected 
with the flexor pedis perforatus tendon. 

(3) Of a more elastic ligamentous 
apparatus embedded in the skin (fig. 
27, e), which covers the lower end of the 
perforans tendon, and is closely con- 
nected with it. Two strong, elongated, 
and somewhat elastic bands (fig. 27, e') 
arise from the pedal bone at the point 
of insertion of the perforans tendon, 
and pass in an upward direction, cover- 
ing the points of insertion of the per- 
foratus tendon, and becoming inserted into the lateral aspects 




FIG. 27. —Right fore-foot seen 
from behind and slightly from 
one side, a, flexor pedis per- 
foratus tendon; b, two limbs 
formed by its bifurcation ; c, 
flexor pedis perforans tendon ; 
d, fibrous reinforcing band of 
great sesamoid sheath ; d', 
fibrous supporting sheath in- 
serted into suffraginis bone by 
four heads ; d", upper inser- 
tions (the lower not visible in 
figure); e, fibro-elastic plate 
covering the lower surface of 
flexor p. perforans and inserted 
into suffraginis bone at e; f, 
suspensory ligament. 



44 LOCOMOTOR APPARATUS OF THE FOOT. 

of the suffraginis bone at about its centre. They sustain the 
lower part of the perforans tendon like a sling. As the divisions 
of the perforatus tendon in passing downwards, and of this 
elastic ligament in passing upwards, diverge from one another, 
they enclose an oval or diamond-shaped space, which is closed 
from without by a thin membrane connected with the synovial 
sheath of the perforans tendon. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE ELASTIC TISSUES OF THE FOOT. 

To those portions of the horse's foot just described must be 
added other structures, which prolong and complete the former : 
the two lateral cartilages and the plantar cushion. These are 
peculiar to the horse, and do not occur in the same form in 
the foot of any other animal. They, therefore, differentiate the 
equine foot from all others, and, on account of their structure, 
form, and functions, deserve our closest attention. The fact of 
physical peculiarities rendering them of such great importance, 
leads us to very shortly describe the two commonest forms : 
cartilage and elastic tissue. 

Cartilages are, in simple language, close-grained, firm tissues, 
which, when fresh, present a whitish, when dried, a brown 
colour. They are moderately firm in texture, exceedingly 
tough, insensitive, and almost non- vascular. In addition to 
toughness they show a high degree of flexibility and elasticity, 
especially when in moderately-thin plates or when mixed with 
other fibrous or tendinous tissue, as in " fibro-cartilage." In 
the animal body, cartilage not only forms a component of joints, 
in which we have already found it occurring as articular 
cartilage, but enters into the composition of many parts, which^ 
while possessing a distinct form, are also distinctly flexible. 

Elastic tissue is widely distributed throughout the animal 
organism, and is found associated with connective or cellular 
tissue, of which it is a variety. The parts in which elastic 
tissue predominates are distinguished by a yellow colour. 
Microscopical examination shows this tissue to consist of fine 
fibres uniting with one another and forming a kind of net. 
The smallest accumulations of such fibres are associated to form 
bundles, smaller and larger cords, bands, or entire tissues. The 
ends of the fine threads, when ruptured, curl up; and the larger, 

45 



46 



THE ELASTIC TISSUES OF THE FOOT. 



when pulled lengthwise, return to their original position with a 
jerk, reminding one closely of india-rubber. This tissue, like 
cartilage, is insensitive, and almost non- vascular. 

1. The Lateral Cartilages 



Are attached to the wings of 

4 




the pedal bone, which they 
prolong in a backward and 
upward direction. Each car- 
tilage consists of an approxi- 
mately lozenge-shaped plate, 
extending upwards above the 
middle of the coronet bone. 
In front, it is in contact with 
the extensor tendon; behind, 
it projects beyond the pedal 
bone. The free ends of the 
cartilages tend to approach 
each other, and thus to sur- 
round the plantar cushion and 
flexor perforans tendon. 

Each cartilage has two sur- 
faces, four borders, and four 

Fig. 28. — A, pedal bone; B, lateral cartilage 
cut through horizontally at the height of the angles. The OUter SUrfaCC (fiQ". 
coffin joint ; c, postero-lateral ligaments. ^ ^ ^ 

29, C) is convex, and covered 
by numerous blood-vessels, mostly veins. Its anterior and upper 

parts are fairly smooth, 
but the posterior and 
under portion show 
numerous apertures of 
varying size, permitting 
the passage of blood- 
vessels. The anterior 
portion of the inner 
surface (fig. 30, B) 
covers the side of the 

riG. 29.-Eight fore-foot A, coronet bone; 5 pedal corOUCt boUC. It is COU- 
bone ; C, outer lateral cartilage ; a, outer lateral 

ligament of pedal joint; &, ligament connecting caVC, and frOm itS UPPCr 
lateral cartilage to coronet bone ; c, ligament connect- ' ^^ 

ing lateral cartilage to pedal bone. bordcr arisC numCrOUS 

strong, cord-like tendons, which run in various directions. Be- 




THE LATERAL CAETILAGES. 



47 



tween these are channels for a rich venous network. About 
the centre of the inner surface, or rather nearer its anterior 
margin, can usually be found a well-marked furrow^ (b) running 
from above down- 




lateral cartilage ; «, insertions of the various ligaments 
attached to lateral cartilage ; 6, furrow leading to plantar 
foramen ; c, point of insertion of ligament coimecting the 
coronet bone and lateral cartilage ; tZ, point of insertion 
of lateral ligament of navicular bone (postero-lateral 
ligament). 



wards and forwards 
towards the plantar 
groove. In this lies 
the large vessel which 
supplies the pedal 
bone. Close to the 
lower and anterior 
angle are attached 
the postero - lateral 
ligaments of the 

pnfiRn \c\\wf ( fl\ TTrnm Fig. 30. — Postero-lateral view of pedal bone ajid inner 
ouiiiu juiiin^tf.;. xiuii± lateral cartilage. ^, pedal bone ; £, inner surface of 

here runs a strong, 
fibrous cord, the liga- 
ment connecting the 
lateral cartilage and 
bulbs of the frog to the lateral surface of the pastern bone (figs. 
31, c, and 33, d). The upper border is thin, and usually inclined 
inwards, but this does not obtain in every foot ; in some it 
is upright, in others more or less turned outwards. The lower 
border is the thickest portion of the cartilage. In front it is 
united with the wing of the os pedis, in part directly, in part 
by the ligaments attached in common to it and to the pedal 
or navicular bones (fig. 29, c). The notch in the wing of the 
pedal bone is closed by a mass of cartilage, save for a small 
foramen, which permits of vessels passing to the sensitive struc- 
tures. The site of this foramen is where ossification of the 
lateral cartilage usually begins. The posterior part of the lower 
border inclines inwards (fig. 28), but from this point, in an up- 
ward direction, the usual trend is outwards. The tissue is here 
in such close union with the plantar cushion, partly through 
cartilaginous, partly through fibrous connections, that the two 
form a common mass, in which no distinct boundary can be 
detected (fig. 35). The anterior border runs obliquely from 
above downwards and backwards, and is closely connected with 
the lateral ligaments of the pedal joint (fig. 29, a), with which 
it to some extent unites. The posterior border runs in the 



48 THE ELASTIC TISSUES OF THE FOOT. 

same direction as the anterior, is sharp, and exhibits a number 
of depressions, through which vessels pass. The antero-superior 
angle is formed by the meeting of the anterior and upper borders. 
It is attached to the lateral surfaces of the coronet bone by 
strong ligaments (figs. 29, 6, and 30, c). The antero-inferior 
angle is connected with the wing of the os pedis. The postero- 
superior angle, formed by the meeting of the upper and posterior 
borders, is somewhat rounded off. The postero-inferior angle 
is connected with the plantar cushion. 

A short note on ossification of the lateral cartilage may 
perhaps be permissible. Lungwitz's experiments showed that 
of 1251 animals examined, 11*5 per cent, had well-marked 
ossification. Lungwitz states that side-bone is commonest in 
heavy, coarse-bred horses (our common experience) ; the fore- 
feet are most frequently affected — the left foot more commonly 
than the right, and the outer cartilage oftener than the inner. 
Ossification may occur early in life, especially at the time 
when animals are first put to work. Well-bred animals 
seldom suffer. 

2. The Plantar Cushion. 

The fibro-fatty frog or plantar cushion (figs. 31, a, and 10, i), 
although sometimes described as consisting of two different 
parts, the sensitive bulbs and sensitive frog, must practically 
be regarded as one and indivisible. It is difficult to find an 
object which precisely simulates it in form ; but it may be 
compared to a wedge whose sides all converge to one point, or 
to a four -sided pyramid, one surface of which is slightly convex, 
the opposite concave. 

The convex, thicker end of the plantar cushion, is turned 
towards the rear, and is surrounded by the posterior part of 
the lateral cartilage. Thence it converges to a point correspond- 
ing in position to the border between the anterior and middle 
thirds of the lower surface of the pedal bone. Consequently, 
it covers the centre of the two posterior thirds of the sensitive 
foot. 

The postero-superior part (figs. 31, a, 32, cc, 33, a, and 34, h) is 
convex, rounded, and rises on either side above the neighbouiing 
portions. Its centre is marked by a slight depression, dividing 



THE PLANTAK CUSHION AND BULBS. 



49 



it into two distinct halves, which, as they serve as bases to the 
so-called bulbs of the foot, and for the most part are only 
covered by skin, have received the name of the sensitive bulbs. 

The cellular bulbs consist principally of yellow, elastic or 
fibrous tissue, combined to form elastic membranes, elastic cords 
of varying thickness, bundles, 
or spherical masses. The bulbs 
contain little white fibrous tissue, 
and are, therefore, the softest 
part of the entire plantar 
cushion. From them, on either 
side, runs a strong elastic cord 
in a forward and upward di- 
rection towards the lower end 
of the suffraginis bone, accom- 
panying a shnilar elastic cord, 
which arises more from the an- 
terior part of the plantar cushion 
and inner surface of the lateral 
cartilage. As this elastic cord 
serves to suspend the bulbs 
from the fetlock, it has been 
termed the suspensory ligament 
of the bulbs (figs. 31, 6, and 
33, c). 

Similar, but smaller liga- 
ments arise from the bulbs, and 
become attached to the posterior 
border of the lateral cartilage 
(fig. 31, 6'). At the same point 
is inserted a tendon, originating 
in the skin close to the horny 
skin under the fetlock (fig. 31, d). 

Fig. 31.— Infero-posterior view of right fore-foot, showing the position of the phxntar cushion. 
The outer lateral cartilage and the tissues covering the lower surface of the pedal bone 
(sensitive frog and sensitive sole) have been removed, a, plantar cushion ; a', bulbar 
portion of plantar cushion; a", cleft of the frog in which rests the "frog stay"; 
b, origin of the so-called "suspensory ligament of the bulbs"; b', small elastic band 
passing towards the lateral cartilage ; c. elastic band arising from lateral cartilage and 
becoming inserted into pastern bone ; it unites with b ; d, small tendon whiclx arises 
from the skin and becomes attached, in common with b and c, to tlu' pastern bone ; 
«, fibro-elastic supporting sheath of flexor p. perforans ; /, fibro-elastic supporting sheath 
of flexor ped. perforatus ; g, flexor p. perforatus tendon ; h, flexor p. perforans tendon ; 
/', suspensory ligament ; k, lower surface of pedal bone, to which the flexor p. perforans 
tendon is attached. 




50 



THE ELASTIC TISSUES OF THE FOOT. 



This, however, is not elastic, but of a fibrous nature. The sides 
of the expanded portion of the bulbs cover the lower parts of 





Fig. 32.— Plantar cushion, seen 
from below, a, base ; b, point ; 
c, groove for i-eceiving frog- 
stay. 



Fig. 33. — Plantar cushion seen from 
above, a, base ; b, point ; c, origin 
of the "suspensory ligament of 
bulbs"; d, spot where the elastic 
ligament running to the lateral 
cartilage becomes attached. 




the plantar cushion, and are, as already stated, so intimately 
connected with the posterior part of the lateral cartilage that 

no sharp boundary can be traced be- 
tween the two, the cartilaginous material 
penetrating the elastic, and the elastic 
the cartilaginous (fig. 35). Anteriorly, 
FIG. 34^-verticai mesial section t^c bulbs are coutiuucd obliqucly down- 
^^.^S^M^^irS^^S^i wards and forwards over the superior 
for frog-stay. surfacc of the plantar cushion (figs. 33 

and 34). From this surface a number of broad elastic bands 

run to the elastic reinforcing 
band of the perforans ten- 
don, to which part they 
become attached ; other por- 
tions may be traced in an 
upward direction. The 

under surface of the bulbs 

Fig. 35.— Vertical section of foot from side to side, and the Uudcr and both 
at a point corresponding to the centre of the , 

frog's greatest length. «, posterior part of plan- lateral SUriaCCS ot the plan- 
tar cushion ; b, frog-stay ; cc, lateral cartilages. 

Xote the prolongations into the substance of the tar CUShlOU are clothcd by 
plantar cushion, d, wall ; e, lateral aspect of 

frog; /, junction of frog and bar; g, skin; h, a VaSCUlar membrane, frOm 
coronary band ; /, modified corium covered with i • i i i 

blood-vessels; k, foramina in lateral cartilage Wllich the homy irOg IS 
for passage of blood-vessels. in •, • 

secreted ; tor this reason all 
the central part of the plantar cushion has been termed the 




BULBS OF THE FOOT. 51 

secreting or sensitive frog. The sensitive frog is much tirmer 
than the sensitive bulbs ; the elastic tissue being slight, the 
tendinous or fibrous abundant in quantity. 

The inferior surface of the base of the bulbs and the postero- 
inferior surface of the sensitive frog are divided by a cleft of 
varying depth into two similar parts (figs. 32, c, and 34, c). Above, 
this conformation is continued in the bulbs (fig. 32, a). Anteriorly, 
the two parts unite to form a level, pointed surface. The two 
lateral surfaces are fiat, and marginate the limbs on either side. 
They run towards the middle line of the foot, and meet at the 
point of the plantar cushion (figs. 32 and 33, 5). 

The cushion itself is fixed in position partly through the 
medium of the elastic cords and tissues enumerated, partly 
through its intimate connection with the lateral cartilages, but 
chiefly by the fibrous material which most intimately unites 
the sensitive frog with the lower surface of the pedal bone. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. 

Between the bones, ligaments, tendons, and elastic tissues on 
the one side, and the protective structures of the foot on the 
other, lie a number of organs, which, though not perhaps of the 
same importance in a mechanical sense as those already 
reviewed, nevertheless exercise a paramount influence in the 
play of such phenomena as growth, nourishment and sensation. 
These organs are the blood-vessels and nerves. 

A. BLOOD-VESSELS. 

The blood-vessels are a system of membranous tubes which 
convey the blood from the centre of circulation to all parts of 
the body, and return it thence to the heart. As the blood, on 
which the growth and nourishment of the entire animal body 
depends, is continually moving, it is clear that the same tubes 
which conduct it from the heart cannot return it there. For 
this reason two varieties of blood-vessels are distinguished — 
those coming from the heart, termed the arteries, and those 
going to it, the veins. 

With few exceptions, the arteries can be distinguished from 
the veins in the dead as well as in the living subject. They 
have thicker walls, are of less calibre, and fewer in number 
than the veins. In the dead body they seldom contain blood, 
while the veins are more or less filled. Before Harvey's dis- 
covery they were supposed to carry air ; hence their name. If, 
in a living animal, a large artery be pressed on with the finger, 
a regularly-repeated light beat (the pulse) can be felt. If 
such a vessel be opened, bright red blood issues in a jerking 
stream. The veins exhibit no pulsation ; their blood is dark red, 
and escapes from the severed vessel in a steady flow. 

52 



BLOOD-VESSELS- 53 

In addition to the blood-vessels are other tnbes, whicli con- 
tain a yellow or yellowish-red fluid. These have very thin 
walls, are small, and usually accompany veins, into which they 
finally pour their contents. The fluid is termed lymph, and 
the vessels themselves lymph-vessels. Such vessels can be 
found in the foot, but are so attenuated as scarcely to be 
visible. A lengthened description would be inappropriate here. 
A few remarks on the blood-vessels must suffice. 

At their origin from the heart the arteries are large and 
thick- walled, but, as they recede from this point, they continu- 
ously divide, and their walls become thinner. Large stems 
branch off into smaller ; from these twigs originate in all direc- 
tions until, finally, all trace of them appears to be lost in the 
surrounding tissues. The arrangement can best be compared 
to a tree, the trunk of which divides into main stems, the stems 
into branches, and the branches into innumerable twigs. The 
splitting up of the vessels which provide blood for the organs 
of the body ultimately produces a net-work, which can no longer 
be distinguished with the naked eye. The minute vessels of 
this net-work are termed capillaries. The capillaries, after a 
short course, re-unite in the same fashion as they had arisen 
from the arteries, — that is, by their union they gradually form 
larger and larger vessels, termed veins, which at last empty into 
the heart. The veins, more especially those of the limbs, have 
valves which support the column of blood ascending against the 
action of gravity. The course of the veins is precisely com- 
parable to that of the arteries, though in them the blood flows 
in an opposite direction. 

The arteries and veins being the conductors of blood to 
and from the various organs are of great importance, but the 
capillaries are equally indispensable to nutrition and secretion. 
Passing through their thin walls the fluid portions of the bright 
red arterial blood bathe the tissues of the different organs, bring- 
ing to each the material necessary for its existence and function. 

All parts of the foot are provided with blood-vessels and 
contain more or less blood, with the single exception of the 
horny tissues. The parts, however, concerned in producing 
horn, receive a large supply, and are the most vascular parts 
of the entire foot. 



64 



THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. 



1. The Artepjes. 

Before the blood from the heart cau reach the foot it must 
traverse a large number of arteries, which are variously named. 
At the metacarpus the principal vessel is termed the meta- 
carpal artery, a name which it retains down to the region of the 
fetlock joint. An inch or two above the fetlock joint and in 
front of the flexor tendons this vessel divides into two branches 
of similar size, which then pass downwards on either side of 




Fig. 36.— Lateral view of fore-foot, with prepared vessels and nerves, a, digital artery ; 
6, perpendicular artery; e\ preplan tar artery ; /', twigs from the plantar artery 
which escape through the foramina, just above the lower margin of the os pedis, 
and by their anastomosis form/', the circumflex artery of the toe; A, digital 
vein ; B, coronary venous plexus ; C, laminal plexus ; G, circumflex vein ; 1, 
digital nerve; 2, anterior terminal branches of digital nerve ; 3. posterior ter- 
minal branches of digital nerve ; 4, cutaneous branches. 

the limb as far as the pedal bone, being known as the digital 
arteries. At the pedal bone each digital divides to form the? 
preplantar (fig. 36, e') and plantar artery (fig. 38, f). 

Examining the vessels more closely, one notices, (1) that 
each digital artery {a) is a fairly-large vessel, lying at the side, 
of the flexor tendons, to which, or to the check ligament of 



AllTEKIES OF THE FOOT. 55 

which, it is fastened by connective tissue. In front is placed 
the vein of the same name ; behind it the digital nerve. About 
the middle of the os sutfraginis it gives off: — 

(a) The suffraginal artery. This is a very short vessel, 
which runs at right angles to the digital artery, and almost 
immediately divides into two twigs. 

{aa) The perpendicular artery (the German term means 
anterior suffraginal artery) (fig. 36, h) runs forward, and divides 
into a short and a long twig ; the former running upwards, 
the latter downwards. Both anastomose freely with the similar 
artery of the opposite side. They are distributed to the ex- 
tensor tendon, the skin and the fetlock joint. The lower twig 
assists in supplying blood to the perioplic and coronary bands. 

(hb) The posterior suffraginal artery. This is one of Bouley's 
rameaux ^chelonnds (fig. 38, h), passes backward and supplies 
the flexor tendons and their synovial sheaths, the inferior 
sesamoidean ligament, the suffraginis bone, etc., and anastomoses 
with its fellow of the opposite side. 

(&) The artery of the plantar cushion (figs. 37 and 38, c) arises 
at about the lower end of the os suffraginis, runs backwards 
and downwards below the centre line of the foot, and gives off 
numerous branches in the plantar cushion, and especially in the 
sensitive frog. In addition, it sends twigs to the sensitive bars. 

(c) About the middle of the coronet bone there arise from 
the digital artery, sometimes together, sometimes separately — 

{aa) The anterior coronary artery, or anterior artery of the 
coronary band (fig. 36, d). This is the larger branch of the two, 
and chiefly supplies the coronary band. It anastomoses with 
its fellow of the other side, forming a very complete net-work 
termed the coronary circle. 

(hb) The posterior artery of the coronet bone (fig. 38, d), or 
posterior artery of the coronary circle, which passes backwards, 
unites with its fellow of the opposite side, forming a net-work, 
and supplies the synovial membrane of the coronary and pedal 
joints, the coronet bone, flexor tendons, ligaments, and skin.* 

* Professor Mettam regards the arteries to the coronary band as derived in front 
from the coronary circle and behind from the artery to the pkntar cushion. The 
arteries from the coronary circle are two descending on either side of the extensor 
pedis tendon. They divide, right and left branches uniting, and the eflerents 
from the artery to the plantar cushion doing the same, and uniting with branches 
from the others, a circumflex artery of the band is formed. — [Jno. A. W. D.] 



56 



THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. 



Finally, the digital artery arrives at a point between the 
navicular bone and the wing of the pedal bone, where it divides 
into two branches, of which one runs outwards over the sur- 
face of the OS pedis, the other into the substance of the bone. 
The former is termed — 

(2) The preplantar artery, or artery of the wall (figs. 36, e\ 

and 38, e). Before passing 
outward this vessel gives 
off a twig, which is dis- 
tributed to the plantar 
cushion and sensitive sole. 
It then passes through the 
foramen, between the wing 
of the OS pedis and the 
lateral cartilage, and at 
once divides into three 
branches. The most ijn- 
portant (tig. 36, e') runs in 
a forward direction in the 
preplantar groove, and is 
chiefly distributed to the 
sensitive laminae. The 
branch running backward 
supplies the outer surface 
of the posterior part of 
the lateral cartilage and 
the tissues adjoining with 
blood ; that running down- 
wards has connections with 

Fig. 37. — Foot, seen from below and behind, a, i.-u^ ^ i.^ - j.- i 

digital artery ; c, artery of the plantar cushion ; /'", ^^^ artCry UCXt mentioned. 
twigs of the plantar artery, which divide to form / o \ t<u ^ ^i 4- <. 

the solar plexus ; A, digital vein ; B, lateral portion W j ^^^ plantar artery, 

of coronary plexus ; Z), solar plexus ; G, circumflex C^^v^^v, -.^^^^1 4.^ t. 

vein of toe ; 3, posterior division of digital nerve ; mncr pcdal artery, or artery 

4, cutaneous branches of digital nerve. ^j ^^^ SCUSitivC Solc (fig. 

38, /) is a direct continuation of the digital. After giving off 
some twigs to the pedal joint (fig. 38, g), it passes, lying in the 
plantar groove towards the plantar foramen, through which it 
enters the interior of the pedal bone, where it anastomoses 
with its fellow of the opposite side, forming a net-work, 
the plantar-arch or semilunar anastomosis, from which small 
arteries are given off in all directions (fig. 38, f). These 




VEINS OF THE FOOT. 57 

minister to the nutrition of the pedal bone, but a number, 
termed the anterior laminal arteries, escape from the bone by 
the numerous foramina piercing its anterior surface, and supply 
the sensitive laminae. 

Others again, known as the inferior communicating, pass out- 
wards through the eight to twelve or more little channels open- 
ing on the external surface of the os pedis, just above its inferior 
margin (fig. 36, f), run chiefly downwards, and unite with twigs 
given off by the preplantar artery, forming a more or less well- 
marked vessel, which encircles the lower border of the pedal 
bone, and is termed the circumflex artery of the toe (fig. 36,/^'). 
From this twigs pass backwards over the lower surface of the 
foot, supplying chiefly the sensitive sole (fig. Zl,^). 

2. The Veins. 

After the blood has traversed the capillaries, which in the 
horn-secreting structures are somewhat large, it is collected into 
another series of vessels, which form several superimposed 
net-works, and are so intimately connected one with another 
that its return by one path, if for any reason impeded, can 
always be effected by numerous alternative channels. The 
blood brought to the foot l)y the arteries finally arrives in a 
large vein, which runs parallel with the digital artery, and is 
termed the digital vein (figs. 36 and 37, A). This vein is formed 
by— 

(1) The solar plexus (fig. 37, D), the net-work of small 
veins which closely cover the under surface of the foot, 
aided by those from the plantar cushion and sensitive bars. 
It discharges partly through the net-work formed by the veins 
of the plantar cushion (solar plexus) (fig. 37, B), partly through 
that formed by the deep coronary vein which collects the 
blood from the inner face of the lateral cartilage (fig. 38, E), 
and possibly through the coronary plexus, with all of which it 
is in direct communication. 

(2) The laminal plexus (fig. 36, C) resembles, in most re- 
spects, that of the sole. The blood which it contains is either 
discharged into the coronary plexus, or makes its return by 
the circumflex vein of the sole. 

The venous net-work of the sensitive sole (solar plexus) and 



68 



THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND XERVES OF THE FOOT. 



that of the sensitive laminae (laminal plexus) are connected" 

by— 

(?)) The circumflex vein of the toe (figs. 36 and 37, G). This- 

is not perhaps a true 
vein, but might rather 
be regarded as a 
sinus, being formed of 
several thin - walled 
tubes or sacs of vary- 
ing length, which en- 
circle the lower border 
of the OS pedis, and 
are of much greater 
calibre than the veins 
of the solar and lam- 
inal plexuses with 
which they are con- 
nected. 

(4) The coronary 
plexus encircles the 
entire coronet with; 
the exception of the 
anterior part, cover- 
ing both the outer 
and inner surfaces of 
the lateral cartilage. 




—Eight fore-foot, seenfroiu below, behind, and some- |3y which it is divided 

from one side, The outer lateral cartilage is re- , "^ 

movedjtogetherAvithsufBcient of the pedal bone to render intO a Superficial and 

visible the vessels, etc., in its interior. The nerves accom- ^ 



S. 
what 



(a) The superficial' 
plexus (fig. 36, By 
covers the outer sur- 
face of the lateral car- 



panymg arteries / are shown too thick ; they should be a dCCp portiou. 
less than half as broad as figured, a, digital artery ; b, ^ . ^ 

posterior suffraginal artery ; c, artery of plantar cushion ' ' '"^ 

(cut through) ; d, posterior artery of coronary circle ; /, 
plantar artery, which anastomoses with its fellow within 
the pedal bone, and gives off twigs /', wliich pass to the 
anterior surface of the pedal bone, just above its lower 
edge ; g, twigs of plantar artery supplying coffin joint ; E, 
deep lateral layer of coronary plexus, clothing inner sur- 
face of lateral cartilage ; F, divided ends of superficial part 
of coronary plexus. From these arise the digital vein (not tila^C, and is formcd 
shown) ; H, plantar vein ; 4, posterior branch of digital , ° ' , « ■• 

nerve accompanying vessels into pedal bone ; 5, twigs of bv VCSSels from the 
posterior branch passing towards sensitive lamina). " . . , . -^ 

sensitive lammse. Its- 
veins are larger, and the meshes of the net-work wider than 
those in the sensitive laminae. At the upper border and 
postero-superior angle of the lateral cartilage a number of large 
veins unite, and, in combination with those of the deep- 



2sEliVE8 OV THE FOO'J\ 59, 

coronary plexus and of the plexus of the plantar cushion, 
form the digital vein. 

(b) The deep plexus (fig. 38, U) lies embedded in the depres- 
sions of the inner surface of the lateral cartilage, which we 
have already noticed. It likewise is formed by somewhat 
large vessels intimately connected with the superficial plexus 
by means of apertures in the lateral cartilage. As a rule, this 
plexus receives — 

(5) The plantar vein (fig. 38, I£), which issues from the foramen 
in the pedal bone, and is to be found lying in the plantar groove 
along with the plantar artery. It is formed by intraosseous 
branches, which collect and carry off the blood after its circula- 
tion in the pedal bone, but it has nothing to do with the 
removal of blood supplied to the horn-secreting structures. 
During its course it often receives veins from the pedal articu- 
lation, though, in other cases, these open separately into the 
deep coronary plexus. 

(6) The venous plexus of the plantar cushion (fig. 37, B) is 
really nothing more than an extension backwards and upwards 
over the bulbs of the heel of a part of the solar plexus, the 
meshes of the net-work becoming wider, the veins larger ; 
afterwards they unite to form large vessels, which, as already 
noted, assist in the construction of the digital veins. During 
its course upwards the digital vein of the foot (A) lies in front 
of its artery at the side of the flexor tendons, receiving, in 
addition to some innominate cutaneous veins, the suffraginal 
and perpendicular veins. After the digital veins pass the fet- 
lock joint, they unite in front of the flexor tendons and form a 
plexus, from which the metacarpal veins (3) arise. Their con- 
tained blood, however, has yet to traverse a large number of 
other vessels before it reaches the heart. 

B. THE NERVES. 

The nerves are white, rounded cords of varying thickness, 
which arise from the brain and spinal cord, and, in their course, 
usually accompany the arteries. Like the latter, they divide 
into stems and branches, and are finally lost in the tissues 
which they supply. Whilst the blood-vessels carry to and fro 
material for the nutrition of the tissues, the nerves preside 



60 THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. 

over, and, in a certain sense, regulate the nutritive and secre- 
tive processes, thus exercising a most important influence on 
growth, in addition to serving as channels for the conveyance 
of impulses which result in motion or sensation. The extra- 
vascular portions of the foot, i.e., the horny tissues, are destitute 
of nerves, so that cutting the horn of the hoof and the hairs 
above it causes the animal no pain ; but the skin and the horn- 
secreting structures, on the other hand, are freely supplied. 
For this reason most diseases of the foot cause lively pain, 
whether they result from bruising, pricks in shoeing, inflamma- 
tion, contraction of the foot, or any one of the many other 
possible forms of injury. 

The nerves which supply the foot arise from the spinal cord, 
and in the lower part of the limb, where they accompany the 
digital artery and vein, are termed the digital nerves. 

Each digital nerve (fig. 36, 1) divides at the fetlock into 
two twigs. The anterior (fig. 36, 2) passes obliquely down- 
wards and forwards over the digital artery and vein, and splits 
into a great number of small branches, which are distributed in 
the skin, the coronary band, and the sensitive laminae. 

The posterior branch (figs. 36, 37, 3, and 38, i) is the larger, 
and lies behind the artery, which it accompanies as far as the 
point where the latter forms the net-work in the pedal bone. 
On its way to the plantar foramen it gives off a few twigs for 
the skin (figs. 36 and 37,^), for the joints, and especially for the 
sensitive frog and sensitive sole. The portion which accom- 
panies the plantar artery into the pedal bone divides into very 
fine branches, which run side by side with the small arterioles, 
make their way out of the pedal bone, and are finally lost in 
the laminae (fig. 38, 5). 

A third (middle) branch of the plantar nerve can sometimes 
be distinguished running down immediately behind the vein 
and supplying the coronet and sensitive laminse. In the horn- 
secreting tissue, especially in the sensitive frog, peculiar 
structures have been found connected with the nerves, which 
are known under the names of Pacinian or Vater's corouscles. 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 



The portions of the limb which have, up to the present, been 
studied, are, like all other portions of the body, covered and 
protected from injury by the skin. The covering of the foot, 
however, differs from that of all other parts of the body. 
The Skill.— The skin 



or 



common integument 



is divided into a super- 
ficial epidermis and a 
deeper corium or true 
skin. The epidermis or 
scarf skin is composed 
of a multitude of cells 
united together so as to 
form a layer that covers 
the entire body. From 
it are derived certain 
structures, such as hairs, 
horns, and hoofs, which 
have important func- 
tions to perform, and 
so to render parts of 
the body more fit for 
the purposes to which 
they are put. In animals 
that have coloured skins, 
or skins provided with 
a thick hairy cover- 




FlG. 39.— Vertical section through the human nail and 
nail-bed. a, stratum malpighii of nail-bed ; b, stratum 
granulosnm of nail -bed ; c, the deep layers of the nail 
substance ; d, the superficial layers of same. (From 
Klein's Histology.) 



ing, the epidermis is found to be divided into two por- 
tions, — one the rete mucosum or stratum malpighii; the 
other, and one that is constantly shed as scurf, the 

61 



62 THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 

stratum corneum. The deepest layer of the stratum mal- 
pighii, that lying next to the corium, is a very active 
layer, the elements are capable of dividing and giving origin 
to others that go to take the place of those constantly 
being shed. Moreover, from this layer any loss of epidermis, 
as in a wound, is made good. Further, from the cells of this 
layer all the epidermal appendages are derived, as we shall 
presently explain. 

During the passage of the cells, derived from the actively grow- 
ing cells of the stratum malpighii, to the surface, various changes 
occur in them. Their substance is converted into a horny material, 
they apparently lose their nuclei, they become flattened and more 
or less dissociated. Eventually, they are lost as scurf. The 
epidermis of the domestic animals generally is not so thick as 
that of man, nor can it be shown to consist of so many well- 
marked layers ; this masking is due to the amount of pigment 
contained in the epithelial cells, and the finer differentiating 
details are thereby lost. 

The corium is composed of a felted mass of connective tissue 
(both white and yellow varieties are present, the former in 
greater amount), and it contains blood-vessels, nerves, lym- 
phatics, etc. A certain amount of fat, too, is present, occupying 
the interstices of the connective tissue and mostly near the 
blood-vessels, but fat is not abundant in the corium proper ; it 
is below the corium in the subcutaneous tissues that the great 
mass of adipose tissue seen in some animals, as the ass, is 
deposited. Here it forms the panniculus adiposus. 

The corium, from its structure, is elastic ; the suppleness and 
the power of accommodation possessed by the skin is due 
entirely to this feature. The blood-vessels are very numerous, 
and the capillaries in the superficial parts of the corium are 
extremely close set and complicated. Much blood is required in 
this position owing to the non-vascularity of the epidermis, 
which must draw its nourishment indirectly from the blood- 
vessels of the corium. When we consider the rapidity of growth 
of the epidermis, as evidenced by the constant call upon it for 
the renewal of the hair, the renovation of the hoof, and the 
amount of scurf lost daily, we must conclude that the supply 
of nourishment required is great. Again, the corium possesses 
nerves, and many of the nerves end here in special structures 



STKUCTUKE OF THE SKIN. 63 

termed end- organs; some of the nerves may even penetrate the 
•epidermis to terminate there. So the corium is a highly-sensi- 
tive structure, and forms the seat of the sense of touch. In the 
•corium certain glands are present, such as the sweat glands, 
which are long, tubular, highly-convoluted glands, opening upon 
the surface of the epidermis, either alone or with a hair. These 
glands are lined by an epithelium that is directly continuous 
with the stratum malpighii of the epidermis. Imbedded in 
the corium are the roots of the hairs. If a hair, its sheath, and 
the papilla, as the small conical elevation of the corium at the 
bottom of the pit is called, be examined, it will be found that 
cells also derived from the stratum malpighii cover this papilla, 
and from the proliferation of these cells the hair is formed, 
moving from off the papilla like a cast. As the cells continue 
to grow and multiply, more additions are made to the newly- 
formed hair below, so that eventually it projects from the level 
of the epidermis. It continues to increase in length for a time, 
but soon growth ceases and the hair dies, but provision is made 
for a new hair in the same sheath by a process of budding and 
the formation of a new papilla by the corium, which continues 
the function of the first one. The cells lining the hair sheath 
and covering the papilla are continuous with the stratum 
malpighii, and thus hair is as truly a derivative of epidermis 
as scurf. Growing out, also, from the cells lining the hair- 
sheath and into the corium at several points, we have masses of 
cells arranged to form glands, which provide an oily secretion 
that is poured into the root sheath of the hair. These glands 
are the sebaceous glands, are mostly associated with hairs, and 
provide the secretion that renders the skin unctuous, smooth 
and silky to the touch, and less liable to crack. 

The lioof derived from the epidermis. — The epidermis 
covering the corium of the foot provides the horn that forms 
the hoof. The epidermis covering all the corium below the 
line where the hair terminates has this function. In other 
words, from the epidermis covering the corium of the perioplic 
ring, the coronary band, the sensitive laminae, sensitive frog, 
and sensitive sole horn grows, and hoof is developed. 

The corium is not smooth : if the epidermis is removed it 
will be found to be covered with minute projections sticking 
apparently into the epidermis. In certain regions, e.g., the 



64 THE PROTECTIVE BTEUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 

perioplic ring and coronary band, these papillae are very 
long. The corium, however, had not always this papillated 
appearance ; in the early stages of developmental life the 
surface was quite plane, covered by the epidermis. During 
the tenth week of fcetal life the epidermis covering the part 
where the hoof is to appear begins to grow into the corium 
and dissect it up ; this ingrowth occurs at regular intervals, 
and proceeds throughout the whole depth of the foot. 
Furthermore, a similar ingrowth takes place along the sides 
and at the inflections of the walls known as the bars. The 
epithelial invasions continue to advance into the corium, and 
after a time to form on either face secondary invading points, 
which behave in a similar fashion, though not to the same ex- 
tent, as the original ingrowths. In this way the corium is split 
up into a great number of plates running parallel to each other, 
and these form the sensitive or fleshy laminse. But the epi- 
thelial cells of the epidermis become eventually converted into 
horn scales : such also is the fate of the epithelial cells that in- 
vade the corium, and hence we hnd that occupying the axis of 
any ingrowth is a horny plate that has resulted from the pro- 
liferation and alteration of the cells of the epidermis. No 
difference, therefore, is to be noted in the fate of the daughter 
cells, save that they have cohered to form a horny plate after 
the same fashion as their relatives, the cells producing a hair. 
This horny plate becomes a horny lamina, and hence the horny 
lamina comes to occupy the space between two sensitive 
laminae. A sensitive lamina results, therefore, from two incur- 
sions of the epidermis taking place into the corium, and its 
depth from free edge towards its attached border represents 
the depth of the corium of the foot. The epithehal cells cover- 
ing the corium give rise to the horn lining the horny capsule, 
whether it belongs to the horny laminse or to the horn 
cementing these to the remainder of the hoof. As one proof 
of their horn-forming function, it is to be noted that the horn 
of the interior of the capsule is uncoloured, despite the colour 
of the hoof, and this is to be explained by the absence of 
pigment from the epithelial cells covering the corium in this 
region. Again, if the hoof be partly stripped off, the epithelial 
cells covering the soft structures speedily produce a new horny 
pellicle. On the surface of the hoof the horn thus formed 



OKIGIN OF FEOG AND SOLE. 65 

shows itself as the white line uniting wall and bars to the 
sole. 

The greater portion of the wall is formed from the cells 
covering the coronet. The coriuni of this region carries 
numerous papilhe of varying length ; those placed low down are 
usually longer tlian those above. The papilla^ act as moulds, 
upon which the horn tubes are cast, and from them the tubes 
grow like the hairs from the papillae sunk in the corium of other 
regions, as noted above. The epithelial cells covering the depres- 
sions between the papilhe form horn in a fashion precisely similar 
to those forming the horny laminae, and hence the horn tubes 
or fibres are cemented together by a horny matrix, as may be 
ascertained by consulting any good illustration of a section 
through the wall. Occupying the horn tubes may be found a 
material that has been named intratubular material ; this is de- 
rived from the cells covering the extreme tips of the papillae on 
the coronet, and hence the different portions of the horn form- 
ing the wall are named tubular, intertubular, and intratubular, 
according to their origin from the cells covering the sides of the 
papillae, the depressions between, or the summits of the papillae. 

The horn of the frog is developed partly from the cells 
covering the numerous papillae of the sensitive frog or from the 
depressions between. The peculiarity of the frog may partly 
be accounted for by the mass derived from the non-papillated 
regions, and partly by the secretion formed by the sudoriparous 
glands found in the frog. Close and attentive examination of 
these glands show that they are not true sweat glands, secreting 
sweat as it is usually understood. The material formed, as 
observed in the ducts of the gland tubes, resembles ear wax 
rather than true sweat, and such a secretion would keep the 
frog in the condition we find it, better than a watery secretion 
subject to rapid evaporation. Moreover, the ragged nature of 
the frog may be explained by the hypothesis that the horn of 
purely cellular, as distinct from a moulded and papillated 
origin, is present in greater abundance than in the wall, and, 
as we shall observe later, such an explanation may be offered 
as to the structure of the horny sole, but here no glands are 
present. The cellular horn of the frog, as distinct from the 
tubular horn, has a remarkable appearance on close examination 
with the microscope. The cells are disposed in two alternating 

E 



66 THE PROTECTIVE STKUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 

directions, and passing through these alternating strata and at 
right angles to them are the horn fibres. Such an arrangement 
must consolidate the whole structure and resist traction when 
brought to bear in any direction, and that the toughness of the 
horn of the frog is surprising anyone will admit who has 
attempted to pull a piece away. 

The horny sole also is developed from cells covering the 
papillse of the sensitive sole, and from those covering the surface 
of the corium between them. The papillae, however, are short, 
and the amount of horn derived from other than a papillary 
origin is relatively abundant. The two factors taken in conjunc- 
tion, the short tubes and the cellular horn, explain the lack of 
coherence and the rapid exfoliation. Further, there is no 
natural secretion provided to keep the horn from rapidly 
desiccating and crumbling, as in other regions, where, if no 
secretion is provided, as in the frog, yet a thin protecting 
pellicle descends over the nascent horn, prevents it from cracking 
until it is sufficiently hard to withstand the usages to which it 
is put. The absence of secretion, or of periople, together with 
alternations of excessive dryness or of moisture to which the 
sole is subjected, accounts for the crumbling and breaking down 
of the horny sole ; and, beyond this, it should be mentioned that 
certain structures, as hairs, tend to break off' and disintegrate 
when they have reached a certain length, or, in other words, 
have passed beyond the sphere of influence of the tissues from 
which they have been derived. 

The perioplic horn is derived from the cells covering the 
perioplic ring. Here, again, as in other regions, there are present 
papilla?. The horn developed passes over and becomes super- 
ficial to the horn derived from the coronary band, and its rela- 
tion to the latter part of the hoof wall is like that of a varnish. 
It has been termed, not inaptly, an epithelial varnish, and as such 
it acts. The newly-formed horn from the coronary band when 
submitted, as it sometimes unwittingly is, to desiccation, cracks ; 
and, according to the extent of the crack, a lesion serious or not 
may arise, but fissures in the horny capsule are rarely seen, un- 
less of traumatic or of violent origin, if the periople is still in- 
tact ; and, doubtless, many cases of so-called brittle feet are due 
to a deficiency of secretion from the perioplic ring. The periople 
passes down over the wall as a thin pellicle of horn, and may be 



I 



THE I'ERIOPLIC PJNG. 67 

traced as far as the clenches, where it commences to break down, 
and is removed as l^akes.* 

The corium consists of interlacing bundles of wliite fibrous 
tissue, with a varying quantity of elastic fibres. Its surface is 
papillated, i.e., it is broken up by innumerable conical promi- 
nences, which, though of small size in most situations, attain a 
relatively enormous development in others, such as the coronary 
band, sensitive sole, frog, etc. 

A. THE HORN-SECRETIXG STRUCTURES. 

In the foot, stripped of its horny covering, five great divisions 
of the horn-secreting corium may be recognised. In front and 
at the sides, the perioplic ring, coronary band, and sensitive 
laminae ; below, the sensitive sole and the sensitive frog. To 
prepare a specimen for study, the foot may be macerated in water 
for a few days. In from four to eight days, according to the 
prevailing temperature, the hoof can be detached from the 
vascular structures it covers. To preserve its form the hoof, 
when removed, may be filled with liquid plaster of paris : 
otherwise it loses its characteristic form on drying. 

1. The Peeioplic Eing. 
(Figs. 40 and 41, b.) 

The perioplic ring forms a band about one-sixth to one-quarter 
of an inch broad, lying between the hair-bearing skin and the 
coronary band, and extending completely round the foot to the 
bulbs of the heel. In front it is somewhat broader than at the 
sides, but its greatest breadth is attained close to the bulbs, 
over which it extends to blend imperceptibly with the frog. 
The perioplic ring, though somewhat deeper seated than the 
hair-bearing corium, cannot be sharply differentiated from it. 
On careful examination under water, it will be noted, however, 
that between the last hairs are little papill&e belonging to the 
perioplic ring. The division between the coronary band and 
perioplic ring is indicated by a well-marked, sharply-defined 
linear depression, the coronary groove {Kronenfah of Moller). 

The outer surface of the perioplic ring bears numerous, 
closely-arranged, fine papilhe, from one to two twenty-fourths of 

* I am indebted to Professor Mettam for kindly siipplying the foregoing 
passages (pp. 61-67) on the skin. — [Jno. A. W. D.] 



68 THE PKOTECTIVE STKUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 

aa inch in length, which, from their close apposition, give to 
this part of a freshly-stripped foot a shining appearance, 
especially when the surface is rubbed with the finger or with 
any hard body, thus at once distinguishing the perioplic ring 
from the hair-bearing cutis above, which has a finely- 
punctated appearance, and from the coronary band, which 
has a rougher look. The perioplic ring produces the soft horn 
of the periople and the superficial layer of the wall. The 
periople has been regarded as a portion of the coronary band ; 
but, as the horn which it secretes differs in many respects from 
that of the coronary band, it has been thought well to distin- 
guish it from that structure, and to regard it as a separate 
portion of the horn-secreting corium. 

To show that this superficial layer of horn is not merely a 
layer of epidermis, which it was long thought to be, a foot 
should be sawed through in a circle about an inch below the 
coronet until the sensitive structures are reached, and macerated 
for a few days. The portion thus divided may then be sepa- 
rated from the other parts of the hoof, and, with the exercise 
of some care, may slowly be detached from the foot. During 
the act it will be seen that the fine papillae of the perioplic ring, 
described by Leisering, are drawn out of their horny sheaths, 
just as the papillie of the coronary band are drawn from the 
depressions in which they lie in the horn of the coronet. 

2. The Coeonaky Band. 
(Figs. 40 and 41, c.) 

The coronary band is a rounded structure about f of an 
inch wide, which encircles the foot from the region of one bulb 
to that of the other, and is situated between the perioplic ring 
and the upper extremities of the sensitive laminae. It is divided 
from the perioplic ring by the above-mentioned " coronary 
groove," and is so related to the underlying parts that, at the 
front of the foot, its upper border extends above the highest 
part of the pyramidal process of the pedal bone, and lies in 
front of the lower third of the coronet bone, where it covers 
the extensor pedis tendon. Its sides stretch obliquely backwards 
and downwards, covering the lateral surfaces of the coronet 
bone and the supero-anterior part of the lateral cartilage. Its I 



THE CORONARY BAND. 



69 




posterior portions, however, are overtopped by the lateral carti- 
lage, and by the perioplic ring (compare fig. 41). The coronary 
band is convex on its ante- 
rior surface, and is broadest 
and strongest above the 
toe. Towards the sides it 
somewhat diminishes in 
size and becomes less pro- 
minent, until, in the region 
of the bulbs, it almost alto- 
gether loses its convex 
shape, becoming nearly flat. 

The coronary band ex- 
hibits numerous papillae, 
whicli, though they vary 
greatly in length and thick- 
ness, are, as a whole, much 
longer and stronger than those of the perioplic ring. They are 
best marked in the lower third of the band, where the strongest 
of them are to be found, 
as can easily be seen by 
examining the upper 
part of the hoof after 
removal. The lenc^th of 
these papillae varies in 
general from -g- to i inch, 
though Leisering has 
seen some as short as 

inch and others as 



FlU. 4U.— 1^'out deprived of horny capsule, a, coriuin, 
bearing hairs ; towards the left the hairs have been 
removed by geutle stroking, b, perioplic ring ; c, 
coronary band ; d, sensitive wall ; at the base of 
the laminaj can be seen papilla?. 



12 



long as ^ inch. These 
papillae, however, do not 




cease at the junction of fig. 41. Foot from which the outer portion of the liom 

wall and the greater part of the sensitive structures 
have been removed, so as to show their relations to 
, - . the lateral cartilage, a. divided surface of tlie hair- 

plantar CUShlOU, but are bearing corlum; the cut is continued perpendicularly 

downwards through the sensitive wall, showing that 
the latter is only a continuation of the former ; a', 
hairless portion of hair-bearing corium : b, perioplic 
ring ; b', line indicating its upjjer border; b", section 
of perioplic horn: c, coronary band; c (to the left), 
line indicating the upper border of the coronary band ; 
I'.", section of wall at toe ; d, sensitive wall ; e, horny 
sole ; /, white line ; g, horny frog ; h, plantar cushion ; 
'•, lateral cartilage. 



the coronary band and 
lantar cushion, but are 
reflected in the form of 



two 



convero'ino" 



rows. 



about ^ to ^ an inch in 



breadth, over the pos- 
tero-inferior parts of the 
foot, between the margins of the sensitive laminiB and of the 




70 THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE. FOOT. 

sensitive frog. Immediately in front of the point of the sensi- 
tive frog they mingle with and are lost amongst the similarly- 
formed papillae of the sensitive 
sole. It is these rows of papillae 
on the inferior surface of the foot 
which produce the bars. From 
their union with the papillae of 
the sole (compare fig. 43) it will 
be clear that the bars and sole are 
structurally continuous, a point to 
which we shall later refer. The 
convex form of the coronary band 
depends partly on a considerable 
thickening of the cutis (see fig. 

Fig. 42.— Hora-secreting papillae from the 41, C, SCCtion of the COrium), which, 
coronary band ; magnified. , . i • • i • f • , j 

at this point, IS very nrm m texture, 
indeed of almost cartilaginous consistency ; partly, however, 
from the richness of this region in blood-vessels (see fig. 36, B). 
The coronary band produces the central portion of the horny 
wall. 

3. The Sensitive Lamina.. 
(Figs. 40, 41, d, and 43, a.) 

The corium below the coronary band presents a very different 
structure from that above. Certain portions become thinner 
(compare with section in fig. 41), and the tissue shows, instead 
of papillae, a large number of parallel closely-packed leaves, 
which extend in straight lines from above downwards and 
forwards. These leaves are termed the sensitive laminae. 
The portions of the cutis bearing such leaves may be col- 
lectively termed the sensitive wall. 

The sensitive wall covers the anterior surface of the pedal 
bone and the lower portion of the lateral cartilages. Towards 
the back of the foot the two sides approach the middle line, 
forming an acute angle, and are inclined towards each other 
from above downwards. At the heels the sensitive wall of 
either side is sharply reflected forwards at an acute angle with 
its former course, and lying between the papillae of the sensitive 
sole and those of the reflected coronary band (already described), 
forms a strip about 1 to 1^ inches wide, which secretes the 



THE SENSITIVE LAMIN.-E. 71 

second (laminal) constituent of the bars. AVe, therefore, see 
that the bars are compound in origin, and may theoretically be 
divided into a " coronary " and a " laminal " portion. 

Although, when the hoof is removed, the isolated sensitive 
laminae appear to lie closely packed together, they are really 
divided by deep furrows, which, in life, accommodate the horny 
laminie of the wall. The sensitive lamina:^ may be compared 
to the leaves of a book, — that is, they are fastened by their 
posterior margin to the corium covering the pedal bone and 
vessels, whilst their anterior margin and lateral surfaces are 
free. The isolated laminae are very narrow above, just below 
the coronary band, and become broader as they descend, 
attaining their greatest breadth at the centre, which breadth 
they preserve as far as the ground, decreasing, however, in 
thickness, so that at the base they are markedly thinner. They 
terminate in papillae resembling those of the sensitive sole. 
The " toe " of the foot presents the broadest and most numerous 
laminae. Towards the sides and quarters they become narrower 
and more widely spaced. In the bars they are most slender 
and widest apart. In a similar way the laminae of the 
toe are the longest ; those of the quarters become shorter 
and shorter, until they gradually cease. Their breadth varies 
from 2^ to ^ of an inch, their length from -^V at the bars 
to 2 or 3 inches at the toe, depending on the size of the foot. 
The number of laminee is not always the same. As a rule, 
there are about 25 to a centimetre at the toe,* 21 to 22 at the 
quarters, 15 to 17 at the heels, and at the bars only about 10, 
so that the entire number may be estimated as between 550 
and 600, depending on the size of the foot. 

To the naked eye the lamina? appear quite Hat, but under 
the microscope they are seen to present a number of small 
projections which have been called secondary laminae, running 
more or less in the same direction as the laminae : in fact, each 
lamina reproduces the same structure in miniature as the entire 
sensitive wall. The sensitive laminae produce the laminal 
portion of the wall, and serve especially to connect the corium 
and the horny wall. The strength of this elastic connection ia 
greatly increased by the enormous surface presented by the 
secondary lamime (compare with Hg. 50). 

* Two and a half centimetres equal nearly one inch. 



72 THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 



Moller distinguishes in the sensitive wall three layers, viz., 
(1) the periosteal layer (stratum-peri ostale) ; (2) the vascular 
layer (stratum-vasculosum) ; and (3) the real laminal layer 
(stratum-phyllodes), corresponding to the corium of other 
parts of the body. Moller estimates that at the junction of 
the upper and middle thirds of the toe primary laminae are 
from 240 to T2 i^^^h, and the secondary laminae from q^q to 
3J0 of an inch in thickness. At the lower end of the wall 
the primary laminse are about 4J0 inch, the secondary about 
12^00 to 4J0 inch. At the centre of the toe, in many cases, 
a small depression may be found, which extends on to the 
wall, and contains papillse corresponding in position with the 
little rounded prominence to be found at the toe of the horny 
capsule. 

4 The Sensitive Sole. 
(Fig. 43, b.) 

The corium, after clothing the wall, is reflected over the lower, 
border of the pedal bone to the sole, and then loses its laminal 

character, except at the bars, ex- 
hibiting instead papillae which 
partly resemble those of the perio- 
plic ring, partly those of the coro- 
nary band. The portion of the 
under surface of the foot covered 
by long, thick papillae, like those 
of the coronet, is termed the 
sensitive sole (fig. 43, b). This, 
often flecked with black colouring 
material, or irregularly tinted, 
includes the entire anterior third 
of the under surface, and is divided 

Fig. 43. — Lower surface of foot denuded . 

of horny capsule, a, sensitive bars ; b, mtO tWO partS by the Sensitive 

sensitive sole ; c, sensitive frog ; d, fur- r, -, . 

row of the frog into which the " frog- frOQJ, betwCCU whlch and the SCUSi- 
stay" fits ; e, bulbar expansion of perio- . 

plic ring, which is seen to be continu- tlVC SOlc, llOWCVCr, intervene tllC 
ous with the sensitive frog. . . . 

bars. The sensitive sole is con- 
nected, as already remarked, with the coronary band by a 
number of rows of large papillae insinuated between the 
" laminal " portion of the bars (secreted by a continuation of 
the sensitive laminae) and the sensitive frog. The sensitive 



1 




THE SENSITIVE SOLE AND FROG. 73 

sole carries a very well-marked venous plexus, and produces 
the horn of the sole. 



5. The Sensitive Fiiog. 
(Fig. 48, c.) 

The sensitive frog is that portion of the corium which covers 
the plantar cushion. It clothes the groove of the frog (d), 
and insensibly unites in the neighbourhood of the bulbs (e) 
with the perioplic ring, so that no distinct boundary can be 
drawn between them. In general, the sensitive frog is not 
so well supplied with vessels as the sensitive sole, and, therefore, 
presents a lighter colour. The papillse on the lower surface 
are somewhat longer than those at the sides and base. The 
sensitive frog produces the horny frog. 

Under the term sensitive frog is often included the plantar 
cushion, together with its horn-secreting covering. This, how- 
ever, is anatomically incorrect. The sensitive frog clothes the 
plantar cushion in the same way as the sensitive sole clothes 
the under surface of the os pedis, and the sensitive wall the 
laminal surface of this bone. The plantar cushion and the 
horn-secretino- surface are entirelv different structures. The 

CI? t/ 

former is not a mere thickening of the latter, but a tissue, 
formed of elastic and fibrous components, which fulfils a special 
physiological function. 

B. THE HORNY STRUCTURES. 

The collective masses of horn produced by the active epithelium 
of the foot are termed the hoof (fig. 44). This presents the 
appearance of a capsule enclosing the lower end of the limb, 
and comports itself towards the latter mucli as a shoe to the 
human foot. The connection between the horny capsule and the 
corium is so intimate that in the healthy tissues the two can 
never be dissected apart. Only in certain diseases of the foot 
do the sensitive and insensitive parts of tlie foot become more 
or less disunited. Occasionally, and in very severe cases, the 
hoof may, however, part from the corium, but after death decom- 
position very soon loosens the connection, the line of separation 



74 



THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 



occurring along the row of cells from which the inner portion 

of the horny capsule is developed. 

The hoof may be divided into three different parts, which,. 

however, though differ- 
ing from one another 
in essential particulars,, 
must, on account of 
their position and func- 
tion, be looked on as 
three parts of one and 
the same structure. No 
one of these portions can 
be removed without in- 

T, .. ^, r ..t , . . , i^ry to all and without 

lIG. 44. — Hoof with vascular structures removed, a, '^ ^ 

periople ; owing to maceration in water this is swollen weakening all. Their 

and prominent ; the outei- border exhibits adherent ^ 

hairs, the inner fine punctations. Towards the heels indivisibility and mUtU- 

(«') the periople is seen to broaden out and become _ "^ 

continuous with the horny bulbs. At a" a portion of q\ interdependence are 

horn has been removed. From the point to h consti- ^ 

tutes the toe, from & to c the quarter, and from c to d bcst Uudcrstood by CarC- 

the heel of the foot ; e, projecting portion of frog ; /, . "^ . 

coronary furrow or cutigeral groove, showing numer- fullv rCffardingJ the iu- 

ous punctations ; g, laminal sheath of wall. y & o 

terior of a hoof after 
removal. At no point can sharp divisions be recognised ; each 
part unites and becomes continuous with the other. The three 
parts of the hoof are wall, sole, and fropj. 




1. The Horny Wall 

Is that part of the hoof which is visible when the horse is 
standing (fig. 44), and which protects the foot in front and on 
either side. If we compare the foot with a man's shoe, the^ 
wall represents the upper, though, with this difference, that it 
extends down to the ground and embraces the sole. 

The horny wall exactly responds both in position, course, 
and direction, as well as in the combination of its various 
parts, to the sensitive structures that produce it. It extends- 
obhquely downwards from the border of the skin, decreasing 
in length (or height) towards the back. At the heels it 
bends inwards at either side (compare figs. 45, 46, and 47),. 
runs for a short distance in a forward direction, and gradually 
becomes lost in the sole. The horny wall, therefore, does not 
surround the foot like a ring, but its extremities are infolded 



THE HORNY WALL. 



75 



and inclined towards each 
middle posterior angle be- 
ing open at the back for 
the reception of the frog, 
the two lateral facino- for- 
wards and grasping the 
posterior prolongations of 
the sole. 

The horny wall presents 
an onter (anterior) smooth, 
slic^htly ribbed, or undu- 
lating surface, convex from 
side to side (fig. 44), and 
an inner (posterior) and 
correspondingly concave 
surface (figs. 47 and 48) ; 
an upper border in contact 
with the cutis, and a lower 
which marginates the sole. 
The upper (fig. 44, a) is 
generally known as the 
coronary border, whilst the 
the plantar or l:)earing 
border. . 

For convenience of de- 
scription the wall may be 
divided by imaginary ver- 
tical lines ; thus, one drawn 
through the centre of 
the hoof will divide the 
wall into an inner and an 
outer half (inner and outer 
walls), or four lines may 
be so drawn as to divide 
the wall into five equal 
parts, termed respectively 
the toe, the inner and outer 
quarters, and the inner and 
outer heels. 

{a) . The anterior portion 



other, formino- three anoles, the 




Fig. 45.— ruder surface of right fore-foot. «, a, 
bearing surface of toe ; a.h, of quarters ; b, c. of 
heels ; d, commencement of bars ; c, lateral aspect 
of bars ; /', sole ; f, seat of corn ; (j, white line, 
which is seen to be reflected forwards between sole 
and bars at g'; Ji, horny frog ; /, bulb tir glome of 
frog ; k, bulb of heel ; I, meclian lacuna or cleft of 
frog ; m, lateral lacunfo of frog. 

lower (fio's. 45 and 46, a) is termed 



/r d yr_ 




Fig. 46. -Under surface of riglit hind-foot. Tiie 
lettering is as in lig. 4.=i. 

or toe (fig. 44 from the point of the 



76 THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 

toe to h, and figs. 45 and 46 from a to a) extends on either side 
of the middle line for a distance equal to about one-tenth of 
the entire circumference of the foot ; it, therefore, comprises 
about one-fifth of the whole extent of the wall. 

(&) The quarter (fig. 44, l to c, and figs. 45 and 46, a to h) ex- 
tends backwards from the boundary of the toe, on either side, 
for a like distance. 

(c) The heel (fig. 44, c, e, and figs. 44 and 45, h, d) includes 
the parts between the boundary of the quarter and the inflec- 
tion of the bars. 

{d) The inflection of the bars (figs. 45 and 46, d, 47, «, V) is the 
spot where the wall turns in a forward direction, forming an angle. 

{e) The continuation of the wall in a forward direction 
between the sole and horny frog is named the bars (figs. 45 
and 46, c, and fig. 47, e). 

The direction, length, and thickness of the wall at the toe, 
quarters, and heels respectively, vary not only in the fore and hind 
feet of the same horse, but even in the two halves of the same hoof. 

In the normal hoof the wall of the toe has the greatest in- 
clination to the ground surface, forming in fore-feet an angle of 
45° to 50°, in hind-feet of 50° to 55°. This inclination is less 
at the quarters and heels, where the wall becomes nearly perpen- 
dicular. It may, indeed, surpass a right angle, the wall in such 
cases running from above downwards and inwards. The angle 
between the quarter and the ground surface is always greater in 
the outer portion of the wall, the reason being that the outer wall 
describes a larger circle than the inner (compare figs. 45 and 46). 

The fact that the wall slopes outwards renders it evident 
that the circumference of the foot must be o;reater at the bear- 
ing than at the coronary margin (compare fig. 44). 

The height of the wall decreases from the toe to the inflec- 
tion of the bars, and to a greater proportionate extent in fore 
than in hind feet. No exact measurements can be given, as so 
much depends on the race, age, use, conformation, etc., of the 
animal, and great differences may exist without necessarily 
rendering the hoof abnormal. The length of the toe, as 
compared with that of the quarters and heels, depends on the 
angle of the foot, and is about in the proportion of 3 : 2 : 1, as 
21 : 2 : 1 or as 2 : li : 1. 

The thickness of the wall varies greatly ; from the toe to 



THE BAKS OF THE FOOT. 



77 



the heels it gradually diminishes, and more markedly in fore 
than in hind feet, the exact rate, however, depending on the 
size and form of the hoof and the breed of the animal. The 
larger and the more oblique the hoof the thicker its walls ; 
the more nearly vertical the wall the less its thickness. Coarse - 
bred horses, as a rule, have thicker walls than finer breeds. 
According to Mayer, careful measurements gave the following 
results, which are indicated in millimetres : — 



Fore-foot of pure Arab, 


Toe. 


' Outer and Inner 
Quarters measured 
at Junction with 
Heel. 


9 


7 


5 


Hind- foot of pure Arab, 


8T. 


7 


6 


Medium-sized fore-foot of well-bred horse, 


13 


8 


> 1 


Hind-foot of well-bred horse, . 


11 


8 


7-5 1 


Large fore-foot of coarse-bred horse. 


16 


11 


10 


Hind-foot of coarse-bred horse. 


13 


10 


9 


Small upright fore-foot. 


10-5 


8-5 


5 


Small upright hind- foot of the same horse, 


10 


6 


5-5 


Average thickness, 


11-37 


8-18 


6-87 



These figures, which in general agree with many measure- 
ments made by Leisering, show that the toe of the fore-foot is, 
in general, a thicker toe than that of the hind in the same 
horse. Vertical 

sections, however, 
show that the 
thickness of the 
wall at any given 
point is the same 
from coronet to 
ground surface. 

The angle of the 

bars (fi'T'S. 45 and i^'ie- 47.— Mesial vertical section of hoof with horny frog re- 

^ ° moved, to show the disposition of the bars. At a, b the wall 

46 C?) is as stated is reflected inwards and forwards to form the Im- which tlnally 

^ . ' amalgamates with and is lost in the sole at c ; a, a' (the lighter 

the point where tinted part) shows the spot from which the horny frog has 

V, V li! £ ^t, been removed. 

each halt or the 

wall is reflected in a forward direction. As the wall and bar 




78 THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. 

are continuous, the result is to produce at the heel a strong 
three-cornered mass of horn, from which the bar runs obliquely 
downwards and forwards, in contact with the posterior part of 
the corre>sponding limb of the frog. 

The bars are a continuation of the wall, which turns inward 
at the angle just mentioned. They run forward on either side 
of the frog, following its general direction, though, as they 
gradually become continuous with the horny sole, they do not 
actually reach the point of the frog. The bars are inclined to 
the perpendicular, so that their upper borders approach more 
nearly to the middle line of the foot than the low^er, which 
are closer to the wall. In other w^ords, the lower borders 
are wider apart than the upper. Each bar, therefore, has one 
surface turned towards the middle line of the hoof, and one 
turned from it, the former being the lower or inner, the 
latter the upper or outer (figs. 45 and 46, c). The upper sur- 
face lies within the horny capsule and bears horny laminae. 
The lower, on the other hand, is free, and is bounded on one 
side by the furrow marginating the frog (lateral lacuna of the 
frog) ; its upper part unites with the upper part of the corre- 
sponding side of the frog (compare with the light-shaded portion 
in fig. 47, a to a^ The upper border (fig. 48, c) is to be regarded 
as a prolongation of the coronary groove, and is punctated ; 
the lower border comports itself like the bearing surface of 
other portions of the wall (figs. 45 and 46). 

The relations of the bars are often erroneously described. 
Certain authors believe that they extend as distinct and well- 
defined portions of the wall to the point of the frog, and 
there come in contact. This, however, is certainly not the 
case, though it might appear so on superficial examination. 

Their real extent is at once seen by studying the inside of a 
hoof after removal. As only those parts which exhibit lamini^ 
can be regarded as wall, the presence of laminte may be taken 
as showing exactly how far the bars extend. . A study of 
the lower sensitive surface, on the other hand, may easily lead 
to errors, and for two reasons. Firstly, because the bars, like 
every other part of the wall, grow in an oblique direction 
downwards and forwards, but also towards the bearing surface 
of the wall. Under these circumstances, they extend further 
forward on the ground than on the upper surface of the sole. 



THE PEKIOPLE. 79 

Secondly, because the sensitive bar insensibly fades into the 
sensitive sole, both being marginated by the frog ; as, however, 
the horn of the sole wears away in the same direction as that 
of the bar, and the two unite close to the lateral lacuna of the 
frog, it is clear that no hard and fast line can be drawn between 
the two on this surface. 

By examining the surface of the hoof, however, first discover- 
ing the white line between the sole and bar and following this, 
it becomes clear that the line (figs. 45 and 46, g') never attains 
the point of the frog, always ceasing somewhat short of it, and, 
therefore, that the bars and sole are united into one mass a little 
behind the point of the frog. The bars must accordingly be 
regarded as an important means of union between the horny 
wall and horny sole. At all other points, and over a much 
more extensive area, the two portions of the hoof are united 
through the medium of the white line — a much weaker and less 
rigid method of union. This fact is not without importance in 
connection with the physiology of the foot. 

The wall may be divided into three superposed layers, cor- 
responding to the position of the epidermis from which they 
arise. 

A. The periople is the most superficial and is formed by the 
perioplic ring. It consists of soft horn, which in living animals 
is yielding, very elastic, and when dry presents a glistening 
appearance. In horses which have stood for a considerable 
time in water, or in dead feet, which have been macerated, this 
horn swells up, becomes white, and exhibits a fibrillated char- 
acter. It then forms a soft, elastic, convex strip of varying 
breadth (fig. 44, a to a' , and fig. 48, a), which extends around 
the foot parallel with the groove below as far as the bulbs of 
the heel. It is somewhat broader at the toe than at the 
quarters. At the heels it increases in width and is prolonged 
over the soft structures of the bulbs {a'). The perioplic horn 
of either side becomes continuous at the heels, where it extends 
upwards in a point, rising rather above the highest part of the 
frog. When removed by maceration, it presents the appear- 
ance of a broad strip, the inner surface of which is free above, 
but below covers and is attached to the upper part of the wall 
and the posterior portion of the frog, with the horn of which 
it imperceptibly unites. Its upper (free) portion is punctated, 



80 THE PKOTECTIYE STRUCTUKES OF THE FOOT. 

the small holes accommodating the horn-secreting papillae of 
the perioplic ring. Fresh sections of the entire foot (fig. 41, h'') 
show that its surface is convex and that it extends into the 
depression exhibited by the coronary band. 

Although the perioplic horn is most distinct and easily seen 
at the upper border of the hoof, at which point it forms a light- 
coloured ring and extends towards the bulbs of the heels, it is 
by no means confined to these points. With the exception of 
the bars it covers all portions of the wall (fig. 44, a^'\ giving 
the hoof a more or less shiny appearance. Hoofs which have 
been rasped, and the hoofs of horses which work continuously 
in loose ground, have usually lost this thin layer, though it may 
be found at the heels close to the frog, and near the upper 
margin of the wall, whence it is less frequently rasped away. 
The hoofs of young equines always show it. 

This sheath has been the subject of most varying views. 
Some altogether deny its existence ; others regard it as a pro- 
longation of the cuticle, but such views chiefly depend on waiit 
of close observation. Leisering regards it as a layer of soft horn, 
produced by the perioplic ring. It is easily seen in animals 
which have been shod and in which the sheath has been partially 
torn away. Macerated dead feet exhibit it very distinctly. 
The soft striated prolongation from the perioplic ring, which 
is then easy to follow, shows beyond doubt the direct com- 
munication between the sheath and perioplic ring, and the 
correctness of the statement that the sheath grows from the 
ring. On drying, the whitish look of the sheath disappears and 
is succeeded by a brittle, shiny appearance. 

. The essential difference between the periople (and its expan- 
sion at the heels) and the horn of the wall or frog is well seen 
by studying the development of the parts. In a 20-24-week 
foetus, a sharply marked strip will be found between the future 
cutis and the hoof, indicating the position of the perioplic ring, 
and showing no visible horn formation, whilst the wall, sole, and 
frog are already quite covered by masses of young horn. 

B. The middle sheath is produced by the coronaiy band, and 
is by far the strongest of the three. It consists of a very 
tough, strong, and durable horn, which scarcely swells up in 
water and is the most difficult to cut of all the varieties of 
horn. It forms the principal mass of the wall. The middle 



THE MIDDLE SHEATH OF THE WALL. 



81 




sheath begins at the furrow (figs. 44, /, and 48, h) formed by its 
upper border, which is known anatomically as the " cutigeral 
Qjroove." This 
f^roove is broad- 
est in front, be- 
coming narrower 
as it passes back- 
ward, and accom- 
modates the co- 
ronary band. In 
the neighbour- 
hood of the bulbs 
it is reflected 
downwards and 
forwards, loses its 
concave shape, — 
in fact, ceases to 
be a groove, — 
and is continued 
by a slightly con- 
vex or flattish 
strip (fig. 48, c), 
which indicates the upper border of the bars. Its course is in 
a forward direction between the horny frog and the continuation 
of the innermost sheath of the wall, until finally it is lost in 
the upper surface of the horny sole. 

The floor of the cutigeral groove is closely punctated, the 
small holes being the openings of funnel-shaped depressions, in 
which rest the papillae of the coronary band, and which have 
the general character shown in fig. 53. The holes in the 
coronary furrow are much larger than those in the perioplic 
ring. They vary, however, those in the lowest third of the 
farrow being rather larger and less closely packed than those in 
the upper. Next the laminal (innermost) sheath are one or two 
rows of still smaller holes. Generally speaking, where the holes 
are of large size the inner surface of the middle sheath is 
coloured white, even where the entire wall is dark coloured ; 
in light-coloured feet this part is distinguished by its still paler 
tint. The fact can easily be verified on section. This division 
of the middle sheath into an outer, hard and dark, and an inner, 

F 



Fig. 4S.— a portion of the wall has been removed by makiug verti- 
cal cuts through the wall of the toe and heel, and a horizontal 
cut connecting them just above the bearing margin, a, periople ; 
h, coronary furrow or cutigeral groove, which is seen to become 
reflected forwards at c, and to form the upper border of the bar ; 
d, the middle sheath at the toe, and d', at the heel ; e, horizontal 
section of Avail just above the bearing surface ; /, laminal sheath ; 
this is reflected inwards and forwards at / to form part of the 
bar ; /", fx-ee edge of horny lamina, which is continuous with tlie 
white portion of the middle sheath ; g, horny sole ; h, white line ; 
i, small hoi'ny prominence at tlie centre of the toe ; k, portion of 
frog which becomes continuous with the upper margin of the 
bar ; I, frog stay, dividing the upper groove of the frog into two 
parts. 



82 TllK niOTKCTIVK STRUCTUUES OF TIIK FOOT. 

soi't., UniL^h anil light-coloiiRul ])orti()n is of soiiu^ i)ra.ctii'.;il 
iniporlaiico, as \h(\ Iavo si)iiiol.iiiit\^ becoiuo scpamted, probably 
ill I'onseipuMuv of llu'ir micqua.1 bardiiess. 

Tho oiitor surface of tlio middle^ slioaXli in ])orfoc,tly normal 
foot; ofton prosonls transvorso rings wliich must not be con- 
fnsod with those, resulting from diseases of the feet. The 
middle sheath is the chief eonstituent of the wall, which ex- 
tends below the sole and forms iho bearing margin of the 

foot. 

C. The laminal or eA)nnec.ting shealh (ligs. 44, //, 47 and 48,/) 
is the innermost layer of tlie wall ; it consists of a large number 
of closely packed horny lamina\ which cover the inner face of 
the ii.mer sheath from the lowi^- ma.rgin of the cutigeral groove 
to the horny sole. 

The laminal sheath is nundded on the sensitive lamina?, and 
formed by the epithelial lells covering them. The horny 
lamiiKO interdigitate with the sensitive lamina^, so that each 
sensitive lamina is grasped by two horny lamina^ and each horny 
lamina, by two sensitive lamina\ As the inner sheath approaches 
the bars, its lamina^ decrease in length to disappear altogether 
in the bars themselves (tig. 48,/'), the upper surface of which 
(corresponding to the middle sheath of the wall) it covers. In 
•freshly stripped hoi^fs the individual laminio feel smooth and 
slippery, and can be moved to and fro, but when dry they 
become still' and usually assmne a wavy contour. In number, 
coiu'se, breadth, etc., they correspond exactly with the sensitive 
lamin;e, of which they form the counterpart ; their free borders, 
therefore, point inwards towards the centre of the foot. The 
upper end of a horny lamina begins at the lower margin of the 
cutigeral groove and is slender, as is the low'er end (%. 49, a), 
which seems to become smaller and to disappear where it meets 
the sole. Between the horny laniina\ at this point, are little 
holes (iig. 49, h) for the reception of the papilla^ of the corium, 
which lie at the lower ends of the sensitive lamina\ The 
diminution in size and disappearance of the horny lamina^ is 
only apparent ; in point of fact, they preserve their entire 
breadth between the second sheath of the wall and the horny 
sole, which parts they unite by means of the horn secreted in 
their interspaces. This arrangement can readily be veritied on 
vertical section. The horny lamina^ lyhig between the w-all 



THE LAMINAL OK CONNECTING SHEATH. 



83 



and horny sole, together with the horn filling their interspaces, 
are termed the white line, as will be explained in treating of 
the horny .sole. 

If more closely examined the individual laminie in the fresh 
state are each seen to present a striped appearance (fig. 56, 
d-e), the striations extending in an 
oblif^ue direction from the free border 
upwards and outwards ; attempts to 
tear through a lamina succeed best 
when made in this direction (fig. 56,/). 
Until recently, it was generally stated 
that the horny, like the sensitive, 
laminse jjossessed secondary lamina^ 
i-unning in the direction of their 
greatest length. Professor Mettam, 
however, who has given special atten- 
tion to the subject, is sceptical of the existence of secondary 




m-^ 



Fig. 49. — A portion of the inner sui- 
face of the hoof where hurny wall 
and horny sole join Cabout natural 
size), a, larninal sheath ; b, line 
of union ; between the individual 
lamina; are seen spaces which ac- 
commodate the horn - .secreting 
papilltc ; c, homy sole. 



^ C ^' (f r^'' d^ 




Kk;. .'/).— Transverse incision through the larninal sheath, a, inmost part of the middle 
sheath ; the horn tuljules are seen to reach right up to the horny lamina) ; 6, body of the 
sensitive wall; c, coriiifled portion of lamina; connected with middle sheath of wall ; c', 
irregular lamina;, which do not extend as far as body of sensitive wall ; c", non-cornified 
portion of rete mucosum ; d, vascular lamina; ; d', vascular lamina; which during de- 
velopment have split, thence given rise to the iiTegular horny lamime d ; e, injected 
artery. 



horny laminuj. He says : — " The cells formed by the secondary 
sensitive lamime had not changed to horn, and consequently, 
when a section of the horny wall and laminae is viewed, no 
projections are seen on the latter." The relation of the homy 
to the sensitive laminae will be seen by reference to fig. 50. 



84 THE PEOTECTIVE STRUCTUKES OF THE FOOT. 

which represents a transverse section of these parts. The inner- 
most or laminal sheath is the real means of union between the 
horny wall and sensitive laminae, because the former is the 
derivative of the latter and intimately united to the middle 
layer. 

Fambach's researches (" Beitrag zar Anat. und Physiol, der 
Blattchenschicht des Pferdehufes," Der Hufsclimied, iv., Jahr- 
gang 1886, pp. 137 and following) on twenty-four horses show that 
the average number of horny laminae is 554. Pambach states 
that at the toe fifty laminae occupy an average space of 18 '5 
millimetres ; at the quarters 23 millimetres : at the heels 2 9" 36 
millimetres, and at the bars 38*9 millimetres. Pambach specially 
mentions that there is a distinct difference between fiat hoofs 
(that is, such as form an angle of less than 45°) and upright 
hoofs. In flat hoofs the spaces between the laminae become 
relatively greater towards the heel, while in upright hoofs they 
remain approximately the same. 

Pambach further found that the depth or breadth of a 
horny lamina — that is, the distance between the horny wall and 
the free central margin of the lamina — was in direct proportion 
to the thickness of the wall with which it was connected. In 
flat feet the laminie at the heels were narrower in proportion 
to the thinness of the wall. According to his measurements, 
which were in each case made in the centre of the, particular 
section of the wall and perpendicular to the laminae, the depth 
(or breadth) was : — 

In Flat Feet. In Upright Feet. 

At the toe, 4 to 5 mm. At the toe, 3^^ to 4 mm. 

,, quarter, 3 to 4J ,, „ quarter, 2 J to 3|^ ,, 



heel, 1 to 21 „ „ heel, % to 



o 



2 55 J? ilCCij -J2 

2. The Horny Sole 
(Pigs. 45 and 46, /, and 48, g) 

Is produced by the sensitive sole, and takes the form of a 
strong plate, covering the greater part of the under surface of 
the foot. It consists of hard horn, w^hich, however, is not so 
tough as that of the wall. After a time, portions loosen in the 
form of flakes or plates, and either break away by themselves 



THE HORNY SOLE. 



85 



or are removed in shoeing, so that the sole never exhibits the 
smoothness of the wall, but has a rough, uneven appearance. 
The detached pieces are often so changed that they can readily 
be reduced to a pulverulent mass, nor does even the newly- 
formed horn close to the sensitive sole exhibit the firmness of 
the horny wall ; it can easily be cut with a knife, and permits 
of foreign bodies, like nails, penetrating much more easily than 
that of the wall. The horny frog and bars complete the under 
surface of the foot. They are inserted into the triangular, 
wedge-like space which the sole exhibits towards the back, and 
which divides it into an anterior continuous part, termed the 
body (figs. 45 and 46, /), and two posterior parts, separated 





¥lQ. 51. 



Fig. 



Fig. 51.— Vertical transverse section of hoof witli very thin sole, a, periople, continued over 
the entire wall as indicated by a'; b, middle sheath, showing at b' its white tint ; c, lami- 
nal sheath; d, union between laniinal sheath and sole (white line); e, sole (excessively 
trimmed); /, point of frog; g, space occupied in life by pedal bone and vascular 
structures. 

Fig. 52.— Left lower part of above section (natural size), a, middle sheath ; b, laminal sheath, 
continued as far as the ground surface ; c, sole ; d, yellow soft tubular horn between wall 
and sole, to be found also between the individual laniinnc. 

by this space, the branches or wings of the sole (figs. 45 and 

46,/). 

The sole presents an upper and a lower surface, an anterior 
semicircular and a posterior indented border, as above noted. 
The upper surface is convex (fig. 51, e) and lies in contact with 
the sensitive sole. The highest part is above the point of the 
horny frog (/) ; whence it slopes downwards towards the wall 
both in front and at the sides, rising again, however, to a slight 
extent in the immediate vicinity of the wall. 

Exactly in the middle line of the toe, where the sole joins 
the wall, is a small but distinct prominence (fig. 48, i), which 
extends on to the wall and corresponds to the excavation in the 



86 



THE PROTECTIVE STEUCTUEES OF THE FOOT. 



sensitive wall mentioned on page 72. It is difficult to ascribe 
any particular purpose to this prominence, which is not in- 
variably present. The degree of convexity of the upper sur- 
face of the sole varies greatly in different hoofs, being, cceteris 
paribits, greater in hind than in fore feet, while in diseased 
hoofs it may be entirely suppressed or the hoof may even be 
concave. 

The upper surface of the sole, like the cutigeral groove, is 
dotted with small holes, the openings of little funnel-shaped 

canals of varying size, which 




horn -secreting 
the sensitive 



Fig. 53. — Vertical section from sole, magnified. 
a, funnel-shaped openings in which are lodged 
the horn-secreting papillae of the sole ; they 
vary in size ; &, horny tubules ; c, intermediary 
horn. 



lodge the 
papilhe of 
sole. 

The under surface usually 
presents a concavity corre- 
sponding to the convexity of 
the upper, though in horses 
kept in the stable this space 
may be filled by masses of 
horn which would otherwise 
have been shed. In a nor- 
mal foot the most marked 
concavity is near the point of the frog, whence the sole falls 
towards the wall. 

The outer border of the sole is usually somewhat weaker 
than the centre. It corresponds in shape to the form of the 
wall, that is, in fore-feet it is nearly circular, in hind-feet more 
or less oval, and is attached to the lower portion of the wall 
through the medium of the white line. The inner triangular 
space for the reception of the frog is bordered, not by the sole, 
but by the bars, which throughout its greater extent can be 
differentiated from the sole by following the white line. The 
anterior part of this border is formed by a fusion between the 
horn of the bars and sole ; to it is attached the point of the 
horny frog. 

The white line (figs. 45, 46,^, and 48, Jo) consists of portions of 
the laminal sheath of the wall, which by continued growth are 
carried down and appear between the horny sole and the 
bearing surface of the wall. On careful examination, the 
individual laminee mav be distinguished at the white line as 



THE WHITE LINE. 87 

small, whitish, parallel streaks lying close together. The 
intervals between the separate horny laminae, filled, within the 
foot, by the sensitive lamina, are in the white line occupied by 
a yellowish, semi-transparent, waxy horn (fig. 52, d), which is 
softer and more yielding than the horn of the sole. This horn 
is produced by the papillae, which are situated on the border 
between sensitive wall and sensitive sole, and are in many 
cases merely the terminations of sensitive laminae. 

The mixed horn of the white line is soft, breaks down more 
readily than that of the sole, forming a whitish pulverulent 
material, easily distinguished by its colour from the horn of 
the wall and sole, hence the name " white line." 

The white line is of special importance in shoeing, as it 
indicates the thickness of the wall. Separation between the 
horny wall and horny sole in the white line gives rise to the 
condition termed " loose wall." 

Wherever the horny wall exhibits horny laminae, it must 
necessarily show the " white line." On close examination it 
will be found that the white line does not cease at the angle 
of the bars, but that it is reflected, precisely like the horny 
wall, and runs forwards and inwards, at an angle, towards its 
fellow, dividing the sole from the bars for about half the 
length of the frog (figs. 45 and 46, g). It is certainly not so 
apparent here as at the circumference of the sole, but this 
is explained by the fact that the corresponding portion of the 
laminal sheath is slender, and has thinner and fewer horny 
laminae than the other parts : also, and principally, because 
the bars grow obliquely outwards and downwards, and, there- 
fore, tend to cover these parts of the white line. In order 
to see the white line at this point, a considerable portion of 
the bar must be removed. In front of the anterior third of 
the frog it is no longer visible, the bars and sole here being 
united. 



88 the protective structures of the foot. 

3. The Horny Frog. 
(Figs. 35, 45, 46, 48, 54, and 55.) 

The horny frog exhibits, in general, the form of the plantar 
cushion, or more precisely the sensitive frog on which it is 
moulded. Considered as a whole, it resembles a four-sided 
pyramid lying on one face, and thrust like a wedge into the 
triangular space bounded by the bars and sole at the back of 
the under surface of the hoof. The horn of the frog is soft, 

resembling that of the periople, 
is very elastic, and has been 
compared with india-rubber. 
In spite of its softness and the 
readiness with which it may 
be cut, it possesses considerable 
tenacity, and does not break 
like that of the sole, but tears 
away in shreds or larger masses. 
^ The horny frog presents four 

FIG. 54.-Horny frog removed from ho^f, to- SUrfaCCS and twO extrcmiticS. 

!fSSr'!;Stot^^^^^^^^ The upper surface, which only 

"^^'^ ^^S SttZZ'ir^J^S. becomes visible after removal of 

unites with the bars; d, portion of frog j_t^^ '^r^^# ^r^ r., ^-.r-.^-*- ^-V.^-.-./^'U 
which above is in contact with the bar, but ^^^ nOOI, iS an CXaCl LHOUgn 

vf^^fLl^Ti^lUT/^'v^oiAto reversed reproduction of the 

sheath of wall. p^^^^^^, CUShioU, to which it 

Stands in the same relation as does an impression to the seal 
producing it. It, therefore, resembles an elongated, triangular, 
flattish furrow (figs. 54, a, and 48, m), bounded by two lateral 
surfaces running obliquely downwards and towards the middle 
line (figs. 54, c, and 48, k\ the whole fitting into the space 
between the bars. At the back of this depression and in the 
centre line rises a well-marked prominence, overtopping, more 
or less, the upper margins of the bars, and dividing the depres- 
sion into two equal parts (fig. 48, m). It is called the frog-stay 
(figs. 35, &, 48, I, and 54, h), and exactly corresponds with the 
depression on the under surface of the plantar cushion into 
which it fits. 

The two lateral surfaces of the frog-stay run obliquely down- 
wards and outwards, and the part is, therefore, thicker below 




THE HORNY FKOG AND BULB>5. 89 

than above. Behind, its upper border is comparatively sharp 
and straight, but as it advances and descends becomes flattened, 
at length being lost at the bottom of the depression. 

As the periople, with its posterior expansion, the horny bulbs, 
is united at either side with the frog-stay, and extends upwards 
into the cleft of the frog, it forms at the back of the hoof two 
shallow basin-like concavities, occupied by the rounded extremi- 
ties of the plantar cushion (compare with horny bulbs, page 79). 

The entire upper surface of the horny frog is permeated 
with small openings for the reception of the papilke which 
secrete the horn of the frog. The under surface of the horny 
frog (figs. 45 and 46), which 
in the normal condition lies 
in the same plane with the 
bearing surface of the wall, 
is broadest behind and 
draws to a point in front. 
At its posterior part, corre- 
sponding to the frog-stay . , . , ,. 

^ P . Fig. 55.— Vertical mesial section of horny frog, o, 

above, is a depression, the upper surface ;&, frog-stay; c,cleft of frog, sliow- 
' / Ing at c' overlapping layers of horn. 

furrow or median lacuna of 

the frog (figs. 45, 46, and 55, c). The portions of the frog, 
bounding this furrow on either side, are termed its limbs (i). 
The upper portions of the lateral surfaces (fig. 54, d) are united 
with the upper and inner surface of the bars and with the sole 
(compare with fig. 47, a), the lower portions are free, and, aided 
by the corresponding inner surface of the bar, enclose a furrow 
termed the lateral furrow or lateral lacuna of the frog (figs. 45 
and 46, m). 

As the horn of the frog grows obhquely downwards and 
forwards, the antero-inferior extremity reaches further forward 
than the antero-superior (figs. 54, e, and 55). The posterior end 
or base of the frog is its broadest part. It is formed by the 
limbs of the frog, which here unite with the horny bulbs (figs. 45 
a,nd 46, JvJv). At this point also the well-marked perioplic horn 
covering the heel-wall becomes continuous with the horny frog. 




SECTION II. 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 



A KNOWLEDGE of the structure of its separate parts is the ke^ 
to that of the functions of the foot as a whole. Only those 
who have acquainted themselves with the anatomy of the 
foot can thoroughly understand its action. In many parts of 
the foot the function is immediately apparent from a study of 
the formation, but in others close and careful consideration is 
required. Thus it is at once apparent, on examining the bones- 
of the foot (fig. 11), or a longitudinal section (fig. 10), that the 
bones form the basis for the attachment of other parts, and 
may be regarded as the framework of the machine. The 
relations of the bones, the connection of these by ligaments,, 
the form of contact of the surfaces, their smoothness, and the 
presence of lubricating material between them, allow the bones 
to move to and fro in certain definite directions with great 
ease. Again, the resiliency of the articular cartilages of the 
bones, the presence of several bones in one joint, their liga- 
mentous attachments, and the angles which the joints form 
with one another, not only admit of extensive movements in 
certain planes, but of movements between the bones themselves, 
which in a great measure nullify the effects of sudden shocks.. 
The elasticity of the plantar cushion and of the lateral carti- 
lages is of even greater importance. The part played by these 
structures and by the limb itself in neutralising concussion 
will be considered later. 

The functions of the muscles, blood-vessels, and nerves are- 
less striking on mere anatomical examination. 

90 



FUNCTIONS OF TENDONS, BLOOD-VESSELS, AND NERVES. 91 

The bones and ligaments are set in movement by the 
contraction of muscles ; and, though not with invariable 
certainty, the result of such contraction may largely be deter- 
mined by studying the position of the muscles themselves, and 
the points at which their tendons are inserted. Owing to the 
position of the muscles, much can be learnt of their functions 
by studying living animals. We see, for instance, during 
movement, a constant change of form in the more superficial 
muscles. Sometimes the muscle becomes more, sometimes less 
prominent. Each change is followed by movement of the 
bones. As we see the bones of the foot move, though we are 
aware this region possesses no muscles, it is easy to deduce 
that such movement depends on muscular force developed in 
other parts and transmitted by the tendons. The justness of 
the conclusion is verified when muscles or tendons are injured. 
Movement in the affected parts is then limited or altogether 
inhibited, just as in ourselves the hand and fingers become 
stiff after severe injuries of the muscles or tendons of the 
fore-arm. 

The parts played by the blood-vessels and nerves are, at 
first sight, obscure, and for many centuries remained unrecog- 
nised. For our purpose it is quite sufficient to know that the 
arteries carry bright red blood, the nutritive fluid of the body, 
to every part ; that this supplies nourishment to the tissues, 
that from it are elaborated the secretions, and that the veins 
again carry it off when exhausted. The return of blood from 
the extensive venous net-works of the foot is greatly assisted 
by the peculiar mechanical formation and the large amount of 
elastic tissue within the hoof. 

Similarly, it is sufficient to know that the work of the 
nerves is to control movement and secretion, to convey im- 
pulses recognised by the brain as sensation, and to preside over 
nutritive processes in particular organs. The nerves may be 
likened to telegraph wires. Let us suppose that a certain 
movement is contemplated ; at the right moment the muscles 
involved are made aw^are, through the nerves, of the amount 
of contraction required of them, information which is immedi- 
ately followed by the execution of the movement. A^Tierever 
a sensitive part, that is, one containing nerves, is touched or 
injured, the brain or spinal cord receives an impression of 



92 THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 

what has occurred. Should a nerve be cut through, the part 
supplied by it is deprived of sensation and motion, and nutritive 
processes are no longer carried on in a well-ordered and normal 
fashion. In prolonged, painful diseases of the foot, section of 
the (digital) nerves is sometimes practised ; but though this 
may render the animal sound for a time, it must not be for- 
gotten that the nerves are concerned in other functions than 
that of common sensation, and that neurectomy is often 
followed by unfavourable results. 



CHAPTEE 1. 



HISTOLOGY OF HORN 



By studying a hoof which has recently been removed and 
carefully cleansed, we see that the wall presents a fine vertical 
striation in addition to the longitudinal ring formation already 
referred to. This striation is also apparent on the surface of 




Fig. 56. — Perpendicular section from horn of wall (magnified) . The parallel dark striaj are 
horn tubes ; the lighter intervening portions represent inter-tubular horn. The por- 
tion from a-b represents the outer (dark-coloured) portion of the wall ; b-c, the inner 
(whitish) portion of wall ; c-d, margin between protective sheath and horn lamina; ; 
d-e, horn lamina'. At / are seen splits in the lamina?, running in an oblique upward 
direction. 



vertical sections through any portion of the wall ; it usually 
appears best marked in the inner third of the thickness of the 
wall, that is, in the portion nearest the laminal sheath, which 
even in dark hoofs appears light coloured. By removing a 
thin slice of the dirty or burnt horn from the ground surface 
of the wall, a number of small, closely packed points will 
be seen, somewhat resembling the little openings which we 
have already studied in the cutigeral groove. Little more 
than this can be seen, and therefore, in studying the finer 
structure of the wall, we have recourse to thin sections 
and high magnification. By making a thin section in the 
direction of the striation noted, selecting either the outer 

93 




94 HISTOLOGY OF HORN. 

surface of the wall, or still better, the vertical section already 
mentioned, and examining this under a magnification of 25 to 
50 diameters, we find a number of straight stri« of varying 
thickness, and usually dark in colour, lying parallel with one 
another and connected by a more transparent and lighter 
coloured material. 

Taking a fine section at right angles to the striation we 

shall, first, be able to detect with the naked eye the same 

punctated appearance already recognised in the transverse 

g ^ section from the bearing surface of 

<'Aiif'^^\'ij^<^yf'M.^^; the wall. By holding the section up 

> Mkxm 



f^'^.S'^W/M\ to the light many of the points appear 
il^>P<^^^ 'W^^r^i, n\ to be mere minute holes — a conclusion 
iiPrWWft ^'%j(^lf ^l^ confirmed by the microscope (compare 
&f fem^'lft'^W^ . fig. 57). Under a low power the sec- 
tion shows a number of rounded or 
oval holes (a) surrounded by dark, 
^P ., =.. .^^_.^ crossed lines, which again are ern- 

^t^:;^S^^^'S'^l bedded in a lighter coloured mate- 

5, inter-tubular horn. The dark ^ir,] /7)\ 
specks seen in the section repre- \^/* 

sent masses of pigment. rpj^^ j^^^^g ^^^ ^^^-^^ ^^^^^ SUrrOUud- 

ing tissue correspond in position to the parallel dark striae 
found in longitudinal sections, hence we conclude the striae of 
the wall are hollow tubes, which, however, are not always empty 
but often contain loosely packed cells or broken-down cell pro- 
ducts. They are, in fact, horn tubes, a more correct term than 
that of horn fibres, which has also been given them. The 
lighter horny material surrounding them has been termed inter- 
tubular or connective horn. 

Examination of the sole and soft horn of the froQ- or 
periople shows an almost exactly similar appearance. The 
lower surface of the sole, like the upper, exhibits minute 
openings. On section in an antero-posterior direction, striae 
are seen running obliquely from above downwards and forwards, 
the microscopical examination of which shows them also to be 
horny tubes, though they differ from those of the middle sheath 
■of the wall in their greater breadth and more oblique direction. 
Sections of fresh, soft horn (like that of the frog) exhibit very 
fine striae, which usually take a somewhat wavy course. When, 
however, soft horn is allowed to soak in water for some time 



STRUCTURE OF WALL, WHITE LINE, AND SOLE. 



95 



striae appear as thicker, thread-like lines, and are then very 
distinct. 

By making a horizontal section, embracing portions of the 
bearing surface of the wall, of the white line and of the sole 
(fig. 58), we see that the spaces between the individual horny 
laminas are not filled by connective horn alone, but that a 
number of horn tubes are included. The horny laminne possess 
no horn tubes. Their surfaces show slight strite and small 
secondary laminae or lamellae, more or less vertical (fig. 56, ^ and 
(.'), resembling those of the sensitive laminae akeady described 
at p. 71. Transverse sections of the horny laminae show these 
secondary laminae as small radiating prominences (fig. 66, d), 
which are to be found both in old and young hoofs. The horn 




Fig. 58. — Horizontal section through a part of the wall, the white line and the sole. «, horn 
wall ; b, horn laminse. The horn surrounding the laminaj contains horn tubes c, cut 
through obliquely ; d, horn sole. 



of the hoof, therefore, with the exception of the horny laminae, 
consists of innumerable distinct, parallel, closely-packed horn 
tubes, running obliquely downwards and forwards, and sur- 
rounded by an inter-tubular horn which cements them firmly 
together. 

We may next go a step further, and seek to discover the 
nature and mutual relations of the horn tubes and of the inter- 
tubular horn which connects them. The moderate amplifica- 
tion which revealed the tub.ular structure of the hoof is now 
insufficient. Powers of 200 to 300 diameters are required, 
and the examination will be found to present peculiar difficulties. 
To facilitate cutting we must employ horn which has been long 
macerated, or, if possible, parts from young animals, and some- 



96 



HISTOLOGY OF HORN. 



times subject the horn to solutions which soften its structure and 
make clearer its finer characteristics ; the most useful is caustic 
potash or soda. 

Taking some dead, almost powdery, horn from the sole, or a 
little of the white cheesy material from the cleft of the frog, 
we place it on a slide, add a little clean water, and dropping 
over it a cover-glass, subject the specimen to moderate pressure. 
Under the microscope such a preparation shows only a number 
of cells resembling those of the epidermis described on p. 61. 
These are horn cells. 

By making a second preparation with some of the slimy 




riG. 59. — a, horn cells from wall ; b, 
isolated horn tube from the wall of 
a new-born foal's foot (has been 
treated with caustic potash). 




Fig. 60. — Horn cells from the sole. 
a, young cells from the surface 
of the sole ; 6, cells from horn 
which has been cast. 



material always to be found on the inner surface of the sole, 
frog, etc., after removal of the hoof (especially when the hoof 
has undergone prolonged maceration), we see nothing but 
thousands of horn cells, though in this case they are younger 
than in the former. Of horn tubes and inter- tubular horn we 
see absolutely nothing in either case. 

We may next take a minute particle of dead horn from the 
sole, or loosen a fragment of the striated soft horn from a 
macerated foot, and examine it microscopically after the addition 
of a little caustic potash. We shall then see clearly both horn 



CELLULAR CONSTITUENTS OF HORN. 97 

tubes and inter-tubular horn. The horn tubes are formed, like 
the inter-tubular horn, from single cells (compare figs. 62, c, 64, 
and 65). By pressing on the cover-glass, cells may be detached 
from the horn tubes and are then difficult to distinguish from 
those formino- the inter- tubular horn. 

The same appearance, is presented by the horn of the 
middle sheath of the wall (fig. 59, h), though in this case 
examination is more difficult, and seldom succeeds without 
the use of some caustic fluid. Leisering has, however, made 





Fig. 61.— Horn cells from the 
perioplic ring, a, young ; 
&, older cells. 



Fig. 62.— Horn cells from the frog. 
a, young ; b, older cells ; c, iso- 
lated horn tube. 



good preparations from macerated young hoofs. The horn 
tubes which project above the bearing surface of the wall 
in new-born foals, after the removal of the cap which covers 
the toe until birth, are useful for such demonstrations. The 
horny laminae, as we have seen, contain no tubes, but may 
be divided in a similar way into single horny cells. In 
their case it is not so essential to add an alkali. From the 
results, then, of microscopical examination it may be concluded 
that the horny cells are the elements from which the horn is 
built up. 

The horn tubes, the inter-tubular horn connecting them, and 

G 



98 



HISTOLOGY OF HOKN. 



the horny laminae all consist of cells, which are variously 
described as tubular, and inter-tubular or connective cells. 

Leisering states that, in general, the 
cells of the soft horn and of the sole 
are larger than those of the wall. 
The cells of the horny laminae are 
longer and less thick than those of 
other portions of the hoof. Young, 
imperfectly cornified cells lying close 
to their point of formation (papillae, 
sensitive laminae) are rounded, soft, 
and soon disappear after the addition 
of caustic potash solution; they are, 
therefore, better studied in dilute 
™efh^Su\MS:erby'"?S?pi„°s acetic add, which destroys them less 

sensitive wall ; 6, older cells from ya-nidlv 
a fragment of horn lamina (treated "■p^^ j • 

with caustic potash). Lciscriug bclieves that the cells of 

the horn tubes lie with their greatest length in the direction of 
the tube ; the inter-tubular cells, however, at right angles to the 

tube. The tubular 








and connecting cells, 
therefore, cross more 
or less in direction. 
This is well shown in 
sections of the soft 
horn of the frog, where 
the cells cross almost 
at right angles (fig. 
65). Leisering has ob- 
served the same fact 

Fig 64 —Horizontal section of a fragment of cast horn in the middle shcath 

from sole. Ihe horn tubes a, like the mter-tubular horn £ .t ^^ • n 

&, are seen to consist of cells. At c some of the horn 01 tnC Wall, especially 

tubes have been torn away. . i <• i • 

m young hoofs and m 
such as have been long macerated. In the sole the formation 
is somewhat different. The tubular cells there lie with their 
greatest length more nearly transverse to the direction of the 
tube. Perhaps this position of the cells and the less intimate 
connection which exists between them throughout the sole 
explain the flaking of the sole during work. The cells of the 
horny lamina3 always lie with their greatest length across the 



I 



CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF HORN. 



99 




lamina, in a somewhat oblique direction from fixed border to 
free edge, or downwards and inwards. The tendency of the 
homy laminae always to tear in this direction appears due to 
the arrangement of their cells (fig. 56,/). 

The exceedingly fine particles of brownish, blackish, or deep 
black material which the microscope always shows to be 
present in greater or less amount between the cells of tlie 
tubes and inter-tubular horn 
is pigment. As its presence 
interferes greatly with micro- 
scopical examination, it is best 
to employ uncoloured hoofs. 

This pigment appears to serve 
no particular purpose in the 
construction of the hoof, the 
colour of which varies from 
white, yellow, or grey to a deep 

black according to the amount fig. es. -Perpendicular section of hom frog. 

. • I 1 ' a, horn tubes; &, cells of the inter-tubular 

of piS^mentatlOn. As the Pisr- horn, which are seen to run at right angles 

^ . _ - - ^ .^ ° to the horn tubes. 

ment is produced by the corium, 

striped hoofs are due to absence of pigment-forming cells in 
certain regions of the coronet. It is said that dark hoofs are 
stronger than light, but this requires confirmation. 

The contents of the horn tubes consist of loosely packed, 
incompletely cornified cells, with broken - down material. 
Sometimes traces of blood are found in the tubes, especially 
after severe bruises of the corresponding horn-secreting parts. 

A very few lines on the physical and chemical properties of 
the horn must suffice. The horn forming the hoof, when fresh 
or after soaking in water, is fairly elastic ; but after drying it 
loses this property. It is a bad conductor of heat, and there- 
fore protects the parts it covers from freezing in winter 
weather and from burning during the fitting of a hot shoe. 
Burning horn produces a thick smoke, which has a character- 
istic smell resembling that of burning feathers. Acetic acid 
acts least, nitric acid most on horn, the latter turning it soft 
and yellow ; sulphuric acid produces its effect slowly and 
renders the cells more distinct. Caustic alkalis (soda and 
potash) dissolve the inter-cellular substance and break up the 
horn into its component cells. Ammonia acts similarly : 



100 



HISTOLOGY OF HORN. 



hence it must be injurious to the feet to be continually in- 
contact with manure which contains considerable quantities of 
this alkali. According to Mulder the elements of the horse's 
hoof are: — Carbon, 51'41 ; hydrogen, 6-96; nitrogen, 17 '46 ; 
oxygen, 19*94 ; sulphur, 4-23. 

Clement's analysis is as follows : — 





Wall 


Sole. 


Frofi. 


Water 

Fatty material, .... 
Material soluble in water, 
Insoluble salts, .... 
Animal matters, .... 


16-12 
0-95 
1 04 
0-26 

81-63 


36-00 
0-25 
1-50 
0-25 

62-00 


42-00 
0-50 

1-50 

0-22 

55-78 


100-00 


100-00 


100-00 ■ 



Lungwitz found by experiment that fresh, healthy horn from 
the frog contained about 40 per cent, of water. In the case of 
perioplic horn, however, this figure rises to 50. The excess of 
water in the perioplic horn explains its greater softness and 
flexibility. Fat is also present in small quantities in the horn, 
being formed by fatty degeneration of the loose cells contained 
in the horn tubes. In the soft horn structures of newly-born 
animals the quantity of fat is sometimes so considerable that 
little drops of it may be seen under the microscope. 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 

MoLLER distinguishes three periods in the development of the 
hoof: — (1) The period of general epidermal formation ; (2) The 
period of the provisional hoof ; and (3) The period of the hoof 
proper. 

The period of general epidermal form.'ition comprises 
the first two months of uterine life, during which one can 
only distinguish at the extremity of the limb a slight 
thickening of the epidermis, marking the position of the future 
hoof. 

The second period extends over the third, fourth, fifth, and 
sixth months of fa3tal life, during which are formed the 
coronary band and the remainder of the keratogenous or horn- 
secreting membrane. At the seventh month the wall itself 
appears distinctly, then the sole and frog, which are completely 
developed soon after birth. 

The third period is characterised by the greater hardness of 
the horn. Development takes place from the region of the toe 
towards that of the heels. During the latter half of gestation 
the hoof begins to assume the appearance of ordinary horn, the 
change commencing at the coronet. 

At birth the hoof is conical in shape ; its horn soft and 
elastic. The frog is greatly developed and the sole is not yet 
apparent. It is only towards the fifteenth to eighteenth month 
that the hoof assumes its final form. At first like a truncated 
cony with its base above, it gradually assumes a cylindrical 
form, finally changing once more to the conical shape, but 
witli the base below. The lieels, formerly very oblique, 
become parallel to the toe, and the sole develops a marked 
concavity. 

An examination of the feet of a fully grown but unshod 

101 



102 THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 

horse which has been employed in field work, and has not been 
much on hard roads, will show that they are of the same size and 
length. If the hoof be marked with a rasp or file, it will be 
found, after some time, that the mark is receding from the 
coronary border and approaching the ground ; in a word, it is 
" growing " downwards. If, however, the horse is not working 
(or is shod) its hoofs will become longer. 

Both appearances — the recession of the mark and the elonga- 
tion of the hoofs — show that the latter grow from above down- 
ward, just as do our nails and hair. The explanation, however, 
why the unshod hoof of a horse working on the land remains 
the same leno-th and the shod hoof increases, is to be found in 
the fact that in the first instance as much horn is worn away 
from the bearing surface as is produced above, whilst in the 
other, wear is prevented by the protection afforded by shoes or 
by the absence of movement. 

Growth seems to be regular, at least in the wall. Hartmann, 
who made numerous experiments to discover whether the toe 
grew faster than the quarters or heel, always found that the 
fine transverse incisions, which he made at similar distances 
from the coronary border (though at different points of the 
circumference of the foot), preserved an equal distance from the 
coronary border during their passage downwards, so that he 
concluded growth was equal at all points in the wall. It 
being so difficult to study the growth of horn in the sole and 
frog, it is at present not possible to say whether it takes 
place there more rapidly than in the wall. Hartmann says 
the frog grows most rapidly when the animals are kept hard 
at work, though only then if the part comes in contact with 
the ground. 

Grohn ascertained negatively the infiuence exerted by nerve 
supply upon the growth of the hoof, and found that when the 
digital nerves of one leg were divided, the wall of the corre- 
sponding foot grew more rapidly than that of its fellow\ The 
time required for the horn to grow from the coronary border 
to the ground edge of the wall varies greatly, being from 
eight to sixteen months at the toe, six to ten months at 
the quarters, and four to six months at the heel. The length 
(or height) of the wall and the angle it makes with the 
ground must, of course, be taken into consideration. If we 



RATE OF GROWTH. 103 

regard the average growth as 8 millimetres {-f^ inch) per 
month, the length of time required for complete renewal of 
the hoof at any point is easily reckoned. But, as before stated, 
the rate of growth is not always the same. Lungwitz studied 
this question somewhat closely and formulated his results as 
follows : — 

1. The growth of the horny wall is slow and averages about 
8 millimetres (i% inch) per month. 2. Unshod hoofs grow more 
rapidly than those shod. 3. Hind hoofs grow more rapidly 
than fore. 4. The wall grows slower in stallions than in other 
horses. 5. Growth takes place to an equal extent round the 
entire hoof. 6. There is no connection between the colour and 
rapidity of growth of the hoof. 

Growth is favoured by the horse going barefooted. The 
following case is given in the Hufschmied, v. p. 38 : — 

A horse, the normal growth of whose front hoofs was 3 
millimetres monthly, was sent to grass without shoes for three 
months. A light cantharides blister was applied around the 
coronet. During this period the growth rose to 8*9 millimetres 
per month. 

In horses which are shod, growth is favoured by free move- 
ment on moderately soft ground, by careful shoeing which 
provides for the expansion of the foot, by regularly shorten- 
ing the wall, by nourishing diet, normal state of health, and by 
all factors which increase local circulation. Growth is retarded 
by want of movement, ill health, low condition, exercise on hot 
sand or on stones, drought, excessive length of the hoof, unequal 
distribution of weight in the two limbs, and by continued 
standing on one foot. 

Wear depends to some extent on the pace. Thus at a full 
gallop or fast trot the heels seem to wear most, at a walk or 
slow trot the toe. That is to say, that at a fast pace the foot is 
brought flat to the ground or even with the heel first, but at a 
walk the toe strikes the ground first. It is worthy of note 
that draught horses usually wear the outer quarter more than 
the inner. 

The question of how the hoof grows cannot well be answered 
by direct inspection of the parts, and requires a careful study 
of the formation of the specialised corium, which produces the 
horn, of the microscopic appearances of the horn itself, and of 



104 THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 

the processes of renewal which are always going on in the 
hoof-forming tissues. On page 62 it was shown that the 
surface of the corium is continually secreting cells which 
form the epidermis, that the older of these are compressed 
by the younger and last-formed, in consequence of which 
they become flatter and drier, take on a horny character, 
and finally are thrust off. The growth of the hoof is very 
similar. Like the epidermis, the hoof consists of cells secreted 
by the specialised corium, and gradually compressed and 
dried into a solid adherent mass corresponding to the more 
superficial epidermnl layers. Nevertheless, the arrangement 
and forward growth of the horn cells differ essentially 
from those of the epidermis. As the hoof corium, which 
produces horn cells, is not a level surface like that of the 
skin, but presents numerous papilhe and laminse, the growth 
and formation of horn naturally presents many peculiarities. 
•This folding of the horn-secreting surfaces ensures a very 
intimate connection between the horny and sensitive parts, 
a union characterised by firmness and resistance to dis- 
placement, but presenting also a sufficiently yielding char- 
acter to permit of the growing down of the wall. Leis- 
ering suggested the following theory of the growth of the 
hoof : — 

Every point in the corium, however small, is capable of 
producing horn cells. The papillae, the little surfaces be- 
tween them, the sensitive laminae and their interspaces, are 
all concerned in producing horn, but each in a particular 
way. 

Let the reader imagine the papillai in function. Firstly, they 
produce a circular layer of horny cells ; below these another 
layer, a second, a third, a fourth, and so on. As, however, the 
older cells cannot continue to retain their original position as 
the newer cells are formed, they are gradually thrust outwards 
and onwards in proportion to the space required by the new 
cells. As each papilla is more or less conical, the rows of 
cells are first arranged in a funnel shape, and finally each 
papilla becomes the growing base of a horn tube. As, 
however, the individual (and concentric) layers of cells are 
firmly united to one another, and as each layer is intimately 
connected with the next, there are no marked intervals be- 



HORN TUBES AND INTER-TUBULAR SUBSTANCE. 105 

tween the little tubes thus produced. Each papilla, therefore, 
furnishes the material for and produces a horn tube modelled 
on its own form. The horn tubes correspond in size to the 
papillffi producing them, the thicker pa[)illa' producing larger 
tubes. 

But this is only a part of the process, for were there no 
cementing substance the innumerable tubes thus produced 
would only loosely cover the sensitive foot, just as hair 
covers a man's head or the mane a horses neck, and therefore 
we have to note that whilst the papilke are producing tubes, 
the surfaces between are secreting inter-tubular cells which 
interlock with those of the tubes, and bind the whole into one 
firm mass of horn. 

The strength and hardness of horn depend to some extent 
on the age of the hoof. The older the cells the harder they 
become ; hence the horn close to the secreting parts is softer 
and more readily cut than that further removed. The degree 
of toughness appears to depend largely on the arrangement 
of the cells, being greater the more varying the direction 
between the cells of the tubes and those of the inter- tubular 
horn ; it is perhaps greatest in the softer horn structures 
and middle sheath of the wall, where the cells run in every 
direction (compare fig. 65). The horn of the sole in which 
the arrangement of the cells is entirely different exhibits little 
toughness. 

Having obtained an idea of the method in which the horn 
of the wall, sole, and frog is produced and grows, it only 
remains to note how the horny wall and horny sole are 
connected with their respective sensitive tissues. 

The wall is produced by the coronary band. The horn 
grows downwards, surrounding and protecting the internal 
portions of the foot. But it would be connected with neither 
the sensitive laminae nor with the horny sole were it not that 
the laminse have the property of producing horny material. 
The laminal horn is produced in comparatively small quantities, 
and is not tubular. 

As there is no spot between the coronary band and sensitive 
wall where the secretion of horn is interrupted, and as the 
inter-papillary parts of the lower border of the coronary band 
are continuous with the commencement of the sensitive laminae. 



106 



THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 



there can be no sharp margin drawn between the horn pro- 
duced by the coronary band and that produced by the sensitive 
laminae. The horn produced by the vascular laminae, however, 
has a different structure, and bears the impress of the tissue 
from which it grows. 

The following explanation has been given of the production 
of horn by the sensitive laminae. Each lamina produces a row 
















Fig. 66. — Horizontal section, showing relation of a horny lamina to the corium. A, the 
horny lamina derived from the cells B, B, which have grown into the corium C. When 
the horny lamina is withdrawn after macerating the foot, the space it occupied is the 
cleft between the " fleshy " laminse, and the processes upon which the lines from B eud 
are then known as secondary laminae. It will be seen that they increase the horn- 
producing area ; the cellular character of the horny lamina is, however, still evident. 
(From a micro-photo., Oc. 3, obj. 7.) ^ 



of horny cells on either of its surfaces. The opposing rows of 
horny cells between each pair of sensitive laminae unite, 
forming a single horny lamina. Hence each pair of sensitive 
laminae enclose a horny lamina, and the total number of horny 
and sensitive laminae, is approximately equal. The amount of 
horn contributed by the sensitive laminae to the middle layer 
of the wall is extremely small, being confined to a very thin 
layer of cells secreted by the margins of the sensitive laminae. 



PART PLAYED BY THE LAMINAE. 107 

and collected in the interspace between two horny lamin*. 
All the rest of the cells go to the formation of horny 
laminae. 

Henle {Das Wachsthum des menschlichen Nagds und des 
Pferdelmfs, Gottingen, 1884, p. 32) says, " In my opinion the 
laminae of the sensitive wall correspond to the folds of the 
corium in the human nail-bed. The horny laminae correspond 
to the stratum mucosum of the nail, and between the two 
structures there is only this difference, that in man the 
stratum mucosum and the horny layer are sharply differentiated 
from one another, whilst in the horse the horny laminae and 
the horny wall insensibly coalesce. From this fact I conclude 
that in man the body of the nail glides forward over the 
deeper structures without taking up new elements, whilst, as 
in the hoof the horny laminae and wall are intimately connected, 
it seems quite possible that the wall may receive additions 
from the laminae. That this increment is very slight however, 
is shown by the fact that the wall remains of equal thickness 
throughout any vertical line." (For cut of human nail-bed, 
see p. 61.) 

The horny laminae produced by the sensitive wall are 
gradually thrust or carried by the downward growth of the 
horny wall towards the ground, remaining, however, in un- 
broken continuity with the middle sheath of the wall, and, 
as a whole, representing the inner sheath. On the ground 
surface of the hoof they form the white line. Normal growth 
of the wall essentially depends on a normal condition of the 
sensitive and horny laminae. The layers of cells formed 
by the latter may be regarded as permitting the gradual 
downward movement of the horny wall, and as preventing 
its quitting its proper direction. Such an explanation is 
strengthened by the existence of a remarkable peculiarity in 
the formation of the horny laminae, which will later be de- 
scribed. 

The firm connection between the laminal and middle sheaths 
of the wall, and the interdigitation of the horny and sensitive 
laminae, explain the intimate connection between the horny and 
sensitive walls, but not that between the horny wall and sole, for 
the laminal sheath, which in its continuous downward progress 
projects beyond the laminae, would not of itself form a sufficient 



108 



THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 



bond between the two. The lower ends of the sensitive laminae 
are provided, however, with horn-secreting papillae, which again 
are continuous with those of the sensitive sole, so that in the 
hoof after removal from the foot they appear merely to be the 
marginal papilla? of the sensitive sole. At the point where 
wall and sole meet, and between the individual horny laminte, 
these papilla? and the surfaces between them produce tubes and 
inter-tubular horn, and thus fill the spaces previously occupied 



&- 




Fig. 67.— Cross section of the connecting sheatli of the wall. «, innermost portion of the 
protective sheath of the wall ; the horn tubes are seen to extend right up to the horn 
lamlnse ; ft, portion of the vascular wall ; c, portions of horn laminse connected with horn 
wall ; c', irregularly developed horn laminse ; c", the so-called secondary laminae ; d, 
sensitive or vascular laminse ; dJ , irregularly developed vascular laminas ; e, injected 
arterial vessels. 



by the sensitive lamina?, which would otherwise divide the horny 
laminse. The horn thus thrown out connects the lower portions 
of the laminal sheath with the sole, and assists in forming the 
" white line " (compare fig. 58). Strictly speaking, therefore, 
the white line is produced by the sensitive wall alone. The 
horny lamina? are derived from the lateral surfaces of the sensi- 
tive lamina?, which, however, they have left behind ; the inter- 
laminal horn is a later acquisition, being produced by the 
papillae which terminate each sensitive lamina, and, like the 
horn of the sole, is still in connection with the structure pro- 
ducing it. 

An interesting point has been raised as to how the coronary 
papillae secrete tubes of horn and not solid cylinders. ' It 
is, of course, clear that, as the papilla becomes covered with 



FUNCTION OF THE SENSITIVE WALL. 



109 



cells and these again are thrust off' by continued growth, a 
cylinder must be formed. It would 
seem, however, that the cells produced 
by the tip of the papilla are different 
in character to those produced by the 
sides, and that at a very short distance 
from the papilla itself the central cells 
of the horn cylinder begin to contract 
so that spaces are left, much in the 
same way as in the stalks of certain 
grasses. As growth proceeds, the cen- 
tral cells contract more and more, until 
the origrinal cvlinder becomes a veritable 
tube. 

By examining a cross section of horn 
laminae, like that shown in fig. 68, with 
^-inch objective, it is seen, even after 
treatment with water alone, that the 
lamina consists of two distinct parts. 
The condition is better brought out by 
the use of alkalis or colouring materials. 
On treating the section with dilute 
potash solution the outer part of the 
lamina clears up and becomes almost 
invisible, while the centre remains un- 
altered, save that its cells become rather 
more distinct. Again, the outer layer 
of cells readily absorbs a carmine stain 
while the imier refuses it. The outer 
portion consists of young, uncornified 
cells just secreted by the sensitive la- 
mime. The central, darker part is 
made up of cells which have already 
become cornified. The function of the well-developed mucous 
sheath (stratum mucosum) of the wall appears to be to facilitate 
the downward movement of the wall from coronet to bearing 
margin. After disease of the sensitive wall the downward 
growth appears impeded and the crust is apt to show defor- 
mation. 

The function of the sensitive wall has been the subject of 




Fig. 68. — Transverse section of 
two horn lamina) still connected 
with the middle sheath of the 
wall, a, middle sheath ; b, trans- 
verse section of horn tubules ; 
c, central cornified portion of 
horn lamina; d, e, and/, young 
horn surrounding the fully cor- 
nified parts. 



110 THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 

lively controversy. The principal views on the point are as 
follows : — 

(1) The sensitive wall only produces the laminal sheath of 

the horn wall. This is the generally accepted view, 
and is supported by H. Bouley and Leisering. 

(2) The sensitive wall produces the entire mass of cement 

substance or inter- tubular horn (Fuchs). 

(3) The sensitive wall produces the inter-tubular horn of the 

inner (white) sheath of the wall (Brauell). 

(4) The sensitive wall has no part in the production of 

horn laminse, but the entire wall, including the 
laminae, otows downwards from the coronet. The 
sensitive wall produces a fine layer of horn lying 
between the laminae and the mucous sheath of the 
sensitive laminae. This view appears untenable, if 
only because it fails to explain the gradual increase 
in width of the horny laminae as one proceeds from 
above downwards. 



# 



CHAPTER III. 

THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 

At rest the horse's weight is distributed over four columns, 
the framework of each of which is formed by bones. Taking 
any one of these columns we find the load finally falls on 
the pedal bone, and is transmitted by it to the hoof, which 
may be compared to a socle or plinth sustaining the entire 
limb. The body-weight, however, is not distributed equally 
over the four hoofs, the front feet, which lie nearer the centre 
of gravity of the body, carrying a greater proportion than the 
hind. 

Every object must be supported, at least at one point. If 
all the parts surrounding this are themselves in equilibrium 
the point of support will lie vertically below the centre of 
gravity. Living objects, including the horse, have, instead of 
a point, a surface of support, which, in the horse, may be 
delimited by lines uniting the outer borders of the hoofs, 
and will therefore be found to take the shape of an elon- 
gated rectangle. The centre of gravity of the body falls at 
a point somewhat in advance of the intersection of the two 
diagonals. 

When the horse stands on three legs, the centre of gravity 
is shifted, and the surface of support becomes triangular. If 
a hind-foot is rested, the point will be displaced in a back- 
ward direction, if a fore-foot, forwards. As the feet can only 
sustain weight when in contact with the ground, it follows 
that in movement the surface of support may be an elongated 
strip, i.e., a surface as broad as the hoof, and as long as the 
space between the two hoofs (trot), or may even be diminished 
to the area presented by the single hoof, which for the time 
being carries the entire body-weight (gallop). In addition to 
the weight of the body, the limbs have often to bear a con- 

111 



112 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 

siderable added load, and are hence exposed during severe work 
to many chances of injury and disease. 

The action of weight on the hoof differs at a slow walk and 
at higher rates of speed. At a walk the rise and fall of the 
load is slight, but at the trot, gallop, or leap it greatly increases. 
At these paces tlie impact of the body- weight is violently trans- 
mitted to the lower parts of the limbs, and, in proportion to 
the rapidity with which the animal moves, the hoof suffers a more 
or less violent shock at each contact with the eartli, such shock 
producing in its turn a corresponding counter-shock. Considering 
the weight of the animal's body, it is clear that, were it not for 
the peculiar anti-concussive arrangements in the hoof and limb, 
such violence must be followed by severe injury both to limb 
and trunk. The angular formation of the limbs, and the 
position in which they come in contact with the earth, the 
presence of joints, and the excentric form of their articular 
surfaces, the resiliency of articular cartilages, the lubrication by 
synovia, the elasticity of ligaments, of the lateral cartilages, 
plantar cushion, coronary band, and horny capsule, and, 
finally, the peculiar union between hoof and pedal bone, all 
co-operate in diminishing the effects of violent impact with the 
earth, and in preventing transmission of shock to the trunk. 

An exhaustive examination of these anti-concussive media 
would extend to even more distant regions, for the entire limb 
is elastic, while the fore-limbs are connected with the trunk, 
not by bones, but by muscles, a device which, in itself, tends 
very materially to minimise shock. The hind-limbs, certainly, 
are directly connected with the rest of the skeleton, but this is 
compensated for by their angular formation, and by the ligament- 
ous tissues connected with the stifle and hock joints. In every 
joint, therefore, the vibration transmitted to the limb is some- 
what diminished, and, as a consequence, the body sustains only 
slight and unimportant disturbance. Of the lower joints of 
the limb, the fetlock shows this anti-concussive mechanism 
best. Its articular depression, into which fits the lower 
extremity of the metacarpal bone, consists of three bones, con- 
nected together, but nevertheless relatively movable. By 
means of the powerful suspensory ligament, the sesamoid bones 
are suspended from the bones of the carpus, and are connected 
to the upper end of the metacarpus ; hence, when the fetlock 



HOW CONCUSSION IS NEUTRALISED. 113 

joint is excessively flexed under the incidence of the body- 
weight, these bones yield to a considerable extent. The sus- 
pensory ligament, in common with the inferior and lateral 
sesamoidean ligaments, and the two bands of the suspensory 
which pass downwards and forwards (fig. 25, l^) to unite 
with the extensor pedis tendon, assure to this joint a secure 
position without any exertion of muscular strength, while 
yet permitting the backward and downward movement of the 
lower end of the metacarpal bone during movement. 

The anatomical peculiarities indicated greatly assist the 
fetlock joint in neutralising shocks produced by the incidence 
of the body- weight, so that in the normal position of the fet- 
lock the force of impact is at least diminished by one-half, and 
what remains is transmitted through the bones of the foot to the 
hoof. As at the coronet joint the coronet bone is firmly attached 
to the suffraginis, little movement can occur, and, therefore, little 
diminution of shock. The coronet bone is connected directly 
with the suffraginis, and indirectly with the sesamoid bones and 
common extensor pedis tendon, an arrangement which prevents 
displacement of the coronet joint under any ordinary load. 

So far as the dissipation of shock is concerned, the pedal 
joint is much better arranged, its lower articular surface consisting 
of two bones, the pedal and navicular. The mobility of this 
joint is greater than that of the coronet joint, though not equal 
to that of the fetlock ; on the other hand, the joint allows of 
considerable lateral deviation. It is assisted in distributing 
concussion, firstly, by the division of its articular surface into 
two; secondly, by the possibihty of movement between the 
pedal and coronet bones ; and thirdly, by the elastic nature of 
the structures between the pedal bone and hoof. 

The pedal and navicular bones are connected by ligaments, 
namely, two strong lateral ligaments, two suspensory ligaments 
of the navicular bone (postero-lateral ligaments), which run 
upwards somewhat spirally arranged, and the fibro-elastic 
apparatus attached to the skin, referred to, p. 43 (fig. 27, e), 
in addition to the ligaments connecting the navicular and 
pedal bones (strahlbeinhufbeinbander) and the navicular bone 
and lateral cartilages (strahlbeinhufknorpelbander). 

Broadly viewing, then, the collective ligaments of the three 
joints of the foot, they are seen to lie chiefly on the posterior 

H 



114 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 

surfaces of the bones, and, owing to their method of origin and 
insertion and their radiating formation, to be capable of assuring 
the relative position of the bones forming the joints without 
the intervention of other structures. The justice of this theo- 
retical deduction is shown by the fact that, after section of 
the flexor pedis perforans and perforatus, the angle between 
the metacarpus and os suffraginis often remains little 
altered. 

The joints named, and especially the pedal joint, are further 
supported in position by tendons, particularly by the flexor 
tendons, with their limiting and encircling ligaments. 

Immediately the foot comes in contact with the ground the 
ligaments and tendons are thrown into tension, the position of 
the hoof remaining the same from the beginning to the end of 
this period. We see that the articular depression of the pedal 
joint forms the point of rotation for the termination of the 
column of bones carrying the weight of the body. We see, 
also, that, varying with the weight carried by the limb, the 
fetlock joint moves to a certain extent backwards and down- 
wards, though it returns again immediately the load diminishes, 
and that while the fetlock has full play the hoof remains 
stationary. This play of the fetlock would be impossible were 
the pedal joint immovably connected with it. 

The strain on tendons and ligaments is not, however, equally 
severe throughout these joints at all times, but tension and 
relaxation alternate according as the axis of the fetlock is 
more or less inclined to the horizontal plane. At the moment 
when the fetlock is most oblique, all the ligaments of the 
fetlock joint, and especially the superior suspensory ligament 
and the perforans and perforatus tendons, are exceedingly 
tense. The ligaments of the pedal joint, on the other hand, 
are relaxed. But just before the hoof leaves the ground, all 
the ligaments of the pedal joint become tense to their extreme 
margins. At this moment, in consequence of the forward 
movement of the body, the foot is tilted, but the flexor muscles, 
do not begin to act fully until the toe of the foot quits thef! 
ground. As the weight diminishes, the suspensory ligaments 
of the navicular bone, the four posterior corono-suffraginal 
ligaments, the ligaments passing between the lateral cartilages 
and skin of fetlock, constituting the plantar aponeiirosis, and 



CHANGES IN FORM OF THE HOOF. 115 

especially the cartilaginous plate at the back of the pastern 
(iig. 27, e), become excessively tense, causing the navicular bone 
to be applied closely to the posterior part of the articular 
surface of the coronet bone, and the anterior rounded part of 
its articular prominence to be pressed firmly into the articular 
depression of the pedal bone. The formation of the articular 
groove of the coronet bone favours the fixation of the pedal joint 
at the moment when the parts are relieved of weight. When 
liexion is complete, extension immediately beghis, and the hoof 
is advanced, whereupon the stage of weight-bearing commences 
and is followed by relaxation, a series of changes which recurs 
again at each step. 

In order to ensure free and perfect action, it is absolutely 
necessary that the hoof should leave the ground lightly and 
easily. Everything which impedes this phase of movement 
interferes with action, and may lead to disease of tendon, 
ligament, or bone. Such action can, however, only result 
when weight is equally distributed throughout the joints of 
all four limbs, and the (imaginary) axis of the foot, as viewed 
from the side, appears nearly straight. Slight deviation of 

the axis of the foot in a forward direction, thus I does no 

harm, but deviation backwards is excessively injurious, be- 
cause it leads to oreater weis^ht being thrown on the above- 
mentioned ligaments, and may produce lameness without 
the horse being exposed to any special strain. Injury may 
result even when standing in the stable, especially when the 
surface of the pavement falls too much towards the heel-post. 

Bearing in mind these facts, the farrier should strive to so 
form the hoof that the load between the ligaments and tendons 
in the region of the pedal joint is evenly distributed. 

Changes in Form of the Hoof. 

We have seen that the body- weight is conveyed to the pedal 
bone through the medium of the coronet bone. As, however, 
the pedal bone is connected tlu'ough the laminal sheath of the 
sensitive wall with the horny wall, it is clear that the weight 
is further conveyed to the horny wall itself. This, like the 
' other parts of the hoof, is somewhat elastic. Elastic bodies 
change their shape under pressure, a rule to which the hoof 



116 THE MECHANICAL lUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 

is no exception. The character and extent of these changes of 
form, and how and at what times they occur, are points which 
have been studied both in living and dead hoofs, though results 
vary greatly, and in some instances even contradict one another. 
This is explained partly by the different interpretations of 
different observers, partly by the difference of the objects 
examined, and partly by variations in methods of examination, 
though it is also probable that contradictory results have, in 
certain cases, been caused by unappreciated or doubtful 
anatomical conditions in the hoof. 

Historical. — The elasticity of the hoof was recognised even 
in the last century by Lafosse, jun., and J. Clark, although 
they attributed it to the elasticity of the horn alone. In 
1810 Bracy Clark went a step further. He referred the 
elasticity of the hoof to the formation of the horny capsule, 
which he divided into three chief parts — wall, sole, and frog. 
He also laid great stress on the flattening of the concavity of 
the sole, and the driving apart of the heels by the frog at the 
moment when weight was placed on the foot. He concluded 
that any interference with this lateral movement of the heels 
by the shoe might be injurious, and his observations were, 
therefore, of great practical importance, for they form part of 
the foundation of our present system of shoeing. The shoe he 
recommended had no heels, possessed a perfectly horizontal 
bearing surface, and had nail holes distributed through its 
anterior half only. A Frenchman, Perier, attacked these 
views to some extent in 1835, for while he allowed that the 
sides of the bearing surface of the hoof might move slightly, 
he denied that the heels as a whole did so. An English 
experimenter, Gloag, of the Army Veterinary Department, 
working on both living and dead hoofs, initiated new ideas in 
1849. He found no lateral movement, no sinking of the sole, 
but only a slight sinking of the bulbs of the heel. Next 
year, however, Gloag's results were contradicted by Keeve. 
In order to demonstrate the descent of the sole in the livinsj 
horse, he used a shoe which carried between the quarters 
a cross bar provided on the upper side with small upright 
spikes. After the horse had been walked a few steps, the 
hoof was examined, but showed nothing to indicate that the 
sole descended. The horse was then trotted and galloped ; 






EAELY EXPERIMENTS ON EXPANSION OF THE FOOT. 117 

a second examination left no doubt, for each spike, which was 
still at the same distance from the surface of the sole as at 
the commencement of the examination, had produced a mark 
in the sole. There were altogether nine visible punctures, 
showing: that the sole durinor movement had sunk and risen 
again. In a similar way he also proved the lateral expansion 
of the hoof at the bearing surface. 

The famous French experimenter, H. Bouley, in 1851, like- 
wise proved the dilatation of the hoof and the descent of the 
sole during movement. In 1852 Mills traced the circumfer- 
ence of the hoof, both when bearing weight and when free, and 
showed that the circumference of the hoof when loaded was 
greater than when unloaded. 

Leisering and Hartmann, in 1861, made experiments on dead 
and livins: hoofs. Leiserino: found that in dead feet the 
posterior parts of the horny sole sink more than other points, 
provided the navicular bone is also under pressure. He con- 
sidered that the descent of the sole is accompanied by only 
a slight dilatation of the periphery and bearing surface, and 
that at the coronary border of the wall there is even diminution 
in size. According to his view, the hoof carries the greatest 
weight at the moment when the fetlock joint is most extended 
forward (dorsal flexion). Experimental measurements of living 
hoofs, which he made in company with Hartmann, gave the 
following results : — 

Dilatation of the lateral walls of the hoof at the bearing 
surface, about 1 to 2 millimetres, at the coronary border an equal 
degree of contraction ; dilatation of the walls of the heel at the 
coronary margin, 2 to 4 millimetres, and at the bearing surface, 
2 to 3 millimetres. 

Leisering's views on the movement of the foot were generally 
accepted until 1880, but in 1881 Lechner came forward with 
his experiments made on dead hoofs. These seemed to directly 
contradict the views x^reviously received. Lechner even believed 
that the previously received views as to the movement of the 
hoof were entirely erroneous and had stood in the way of rational 
shoeing. He placed especial weight on what he called rotation 
of the foot, and laid down the following dicta : — 

1. Dilatation at the bearing surface in the sense of the 
older theories, that is, increase beyond the normal size of the 



118 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 

hoof when bearing weight, never occurs in a normally formed 
and sound hoof. 

2. The hoof dilates, or at least becomes tense, at the 
moment of greatest dorsal flexion* of the fetlock, along the 
entire coronary border, but not along the bearing margin. On 
the contrary, at this moment the posterior part of the hoof 
" rotates " on the bearing surface, especially the angle of 
the bars and the walls of the heels, together with the other 
tissues lying between them, whilst the wall and sole of 
the anterior half of the hoof move towards the middle line, 
that is, the hoof becomes narrower below at the moment when 
the anterior half of the bearing surface is under the greatest 
strain. 

3. The sole does not sink at the moment indicated, the bars 
and portions of the sole next them rather rising and approaching 
one another laterally. The sole, therefore, presents a narrower 
and not a wider appearance. 

4. The limbs of the frog are not thrust asunder at the above- 
named moment, that is, broadened and pressed backwards, but 
are pressed together, thickened from the sides, and their length, 
as a whole, increased, the under portions of the bulbs being 
drawn somewhat backwards and outwards. 

5. This rotary movement in the hoof occurs both above and 
below synchronously and isochronously, that is, simultaneously 
and at equal periods of time. 

Lechner's results, which are entirely supported by those of 
Gierth, introduced new view^s as to the physiology of the horse's 
hoof, and at the same time gave rise to fresh experiments. 
Lungwitz and his assistant (now Oberroszarzt a. D. H. Schaaf) 
made experiments on living hoofs in regard to dilatation of the 
hoof at the bearing surface, using a specially constructed 
instrument. The dilatation of the bearing border during the 
period when the hoof carries weight is shown in the following 
table : — 



* It will be noted that the fetlock joint may be flexed in a forward direction 
(dorsal flexion), as during the last phases of movement, preparatory to the foot 
leaving the ground. Dorsal flexion of tbe fetlock is sometimes, though perhaps 
less precisely, described as " extension.'' Flexion backwards (volar flexion) takes 
place during movement of the limb through the air, and is the condition most 
often indicated, in this country, by the term "flexion." 



LUNGWITZ'S CONCLUSIONS ON EXPANSION. 



119 





Number of 
Experiments. 

32 
33 
69 
12 


Dilatation in Millimetres. 


At Outer 
Wall of Heel. 


At Inner 
\Vall of Heel. 


I'.Ltween. 

0-55 
1-28 
2-23 
3-04 


At rest, 

Walk, 

Trot, 

Gallop, ..... 


0-25 
0-55 

0-84 
1-06 


0-30 
70 
1-22 
1-81 



In addition, Lnngwitz by himself undertook another series 
of experiments on living feet, using girdles, callipers, and pieces 
of gummed-on paper. He came to the following conclu- 
sions : — 

1. Dead hoofs, both sound and diseased, except those with 
ossified lateral cartilages, dilate at the coronary margin of the 
heels. 

2. In healthy hoofs the bearing surface dilates, both at the 
coronet and at the ground surface. 

3. This dilatation results in a slight shortening of the longi- 
tudinal diameter of the hoof, which is best shown at the 
coronary border. 

4. Dilatation of the bearino- surface of the wall is shown in 
different ways, according to the form of the hoof. In flat or 
laminitic hoofs it increases from the toe towards the heels, but 
diminishes again towards the bearing surface. 

5. Dilatation of the bearing surface is impeded by shoeing 
and by dryness of the horn. 

6. Flexibility of the horn, and a well-developed but un- 
trimmed frog, favour dilatation of the hoof at the bearing 
surface. 

7. In hoofs with wired-in heels and compressed bars, dilata- 
tion under the body-weight may still occur, but the most 
posterior part of the bearing surface of the heel does not take 
part in it — rather the contrary. 

In the year 1882 Bayer undertook experiments on the 
dilatation of the living hoof, using an electrical apparatus. He 
also found that, when weight was placed on the foot, dilatation 
occurred at the heels both at the coronary and bearing margins. 



120 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 

Martiiiak measured the living hoof by means of callipers, 
and found well marked dilatation at the bulbs and heels of the 
hoof when loaded. His experiments on the living hoof, in 
which he used a bar shoe, also seemed to contradict Lechner s 
rotation theory. 

Steglich, along with Schenkel, made experiments on dead 
hoofs. They concluded that : — 

" The weight of the body produces lateral dilatation of the 
hoof, greatest at the coronary border and least at the bearing 
surface of the horny capsule. Dilatation both of the coronary 
and bearing surfaces is best marked in the region of the heels. 
Towards the quarters it becomes less, and where the quarters 
abut on the toe it entirely disappears. The cause of dilatation 
at the coronary margin is the thrusting downwards and inwards 
of the broader parts of the os coroni>3 between the lateral 
cartilages at the moment of greatest extension (greatest v/eight). 
Dilatation at the bearing surface is produced by lateral dis- 
placement of tlie plantar cushion and horny frog under "the 
pressure of the body-weight. The simultaneous descent of 
the horny sole permits of expansion of the bearing surface 
of the foot." 

Schwentzky measured twenty-two living hoofs, and, except in 
the case of four abnormal hoofs, found that, when the animals were 
standing at rest, the amount of dilatation at the bearing margin 
was from 1 to 2 millimetres ; the average 1*45 millimetre. 

Peters has taken a prominent part in the study of the 
expansion of the foot. He advanced what was termed the 
" depression theory," and placed particular stress on the 
possibility of elongation of the laminal sheath of the wall and 
on the direction of its fibres, by which alone descent of the 
pedal bone becomes possible, and in the further study of which 
the explanation of all the phenomena of the movements of the 
foot is to be found. His experiments led him to the conclusion 
that the pedal bone, which is fastened to the wall, enjoys a 
certain degree of mobility, owing to the possibility of elongation 
of the laminal sheath and to the elasticity of the coronary 
border of the hoof ; that movement occurs around the toe of 
the OS pedis as around a fixed point, and, therefore, that the 
navicular bone, being, as it were, an appendix of the os pedis, 
must take part in these movements. Tlie depression or elastic 



THEOKIES OF STEGLICH, PETERS, BAYER, ETC. 121 

distention of the wall occurs in a backward direction, causintr 
change in the lateral profile of the hoof. He advances, as the 
most important of his conclusions, the following : — 

1. The OS pedis and lateral cartilages, together with the 
navicular bone, perform movements within the horny capsule, 
rotating in the segment of a circle round the point of the 
toe. 

2. The elastic wall, through its laminal sheath, is forced to 
follow this movement, and, therefore, the quarters of the hoof 
change in shape, while the coronary border, being thrust out- 
wards and backwards, descends to a slight extent, and the height 
of the hoof is diminished. 

3. Diminution in height is accompanied by increase in the 
transverse diameter of the hoof ; as much space being thus 
gained at the sides, both at the coronary and bearing borders, 
as is lost by reduction in height. Lateral dilatation is produced 
by the walls being pressed outwards and the bearing surface 
following suit under the pressure of the pedal bone and lateral 
cartilages. 

4. The posterior part of the sole becomes flattened under the 
pressure of the body- weight, and, by thrusting aside the portions 
of the wall nearest it, provides space laterally exactly correspond- 
ing to that lost owing to the pressure from above. 

Fambach's experiments on the laminal sheath of the hoof 
also support the depression theory. Bendz refers the dilatation 
of the heels to the pressure of the navicular bone on the bars. 
Bayer, who employed an electrical instrument to detect the 
changes of form in the hoof, was of the same opinion. 
Foringer, and afterwards Lungwitz, Guteniicker, Schwentzky, 
and others, made similar experiments. Foringer, who employed 
a specially constructed electrical apparatus, with an alarm bell, 
examined livinof hoofs, and found that the wall of the heel 
dilated both at the coronary and bearing surfaces, and that the 
sole was depressed during movement. Guteniicker, employing 
Foringer's apparatus, made certain discoveries which appear to 
support Peters' depression theory. Schwentzky also used an 
electrical apparatus. His experiments appear to agree on 
essential points with those of Bayer, Foringer, Guteniicker, and 
Lungwitz. Lungwitz probably made the greatest number of 
experiments on the living hoof. He modified Foringer's 



122 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. ' 

apparatus in such a way as to permit all parts of the hoof to be- 
examined. He experimented both on the animal at rest and 
in motion, and demonstrated movements in all parts of the wall. 
His researches prove the occurrence of expansion at the 
coronary and bearing surfaces of the heels, and simultaneous 
depression of the sole at the moment when the fetlock joint was 
most extended (or dorsally flexed). Dominik's experiments, on 
the other hand, which extended to both living and dead hoofs,, 
seem rather to favour Lechner's rotation theory. 

The complicated construction and form of the hoof, its con- 
nection with the limb, and the continuous variation of the 
conditions during movement, prevent our attaching the same 
importance to post-mortem experiments as to those made on 
the living animal. Intra-mtam experiments, moreover, have 
a greater claim to consideration, partly because of the great- 
number which have been performed, and partly because of the 
agreement in their results. The following principles, based on 
numerous experiments, agree in great part with the more 
important experiments both old and new, and only conflict with, 
those of Lechner and a few others. 

The point of rotation is the pedal joint. At the moment 
when the foot first meets the ground pressure is slight. It 
increases as the limb approaches the perpendicular, and is 
greatest when the fetlock is most markedly extended, after 
which it diminishes until the hoof is raised from the ground. 
The changes in form are most marked at the moment of 
greatest extension (dorsal flexion) of the fetlock joint. They 
consist, firstly, in lateral expansion of the entire heel region ;. 
secondly, in contraction of the coronary border of the anterior 
half of the hoof ; thirdly, in diminution in the height of the 
hoof as a whole, with simultaneous descent of the bulbs, and,, 
fourthly, in descent of the sole. These changes occur simul- 
taneously and bear a direct proportion to the weight imposed 
on the foot. Leisering accepts Peters' depression theory as 
explaining these, with, however, the qualification that he 
regards the moment of greatest change in form as coincident 
not with the removal of weight but with greatest extension (or 
dorsal flexion) of the fetlock joint. The extent of displace- 
ment of the heels and sinking of the sole is slight, and varies 
from 0'5 to 2 millimetres, seldom more. 



GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON EXPANSION. 



123 




Fig. 69. — Vertical cross section of a foot seen from beliind. 
A, coronet bone ; IJ, navicnlar bone ; C\ pedal l)one ; 
a, lateral cartilage ; b, anterior portion of plantar 
cnshion ; c, divided part of flexor pedis perforaus ten- 
don ; d, postero-lateral ligaments of navicular bone ; I, 
liom wall ; m, horn sole ; n, white line ; o, horn frog. 



In order to understand the mechanics of the hoof, it is 
desirable to study the changes in movement somewhat more 
closely. According to 
Peters' theory, the pedal 
bone, with its comple- 
mentary parts, the na- 
vicular bone and lateral 
cartilages, rotates in the 
segment of a circle 
around its own point, 
which is to be regarded 
as its axis. If we bear 
in mind that the inter- 
vals between the elastic 
laminae and the horny 
wall increase towards 
the heels (Fambach), it will be seen that the connection 
between the sensitive and horny laminae is not everywhere 
equally firm, but becomes less so towards the heels, and, there- 
fore, that at this point the greatest movement might theoreti- 
cally be looked for. In consequence of its formation, its strong 
and long wall, and its connection with the pedal bone, the toe 
would be expected to suffer least displacement under pressure, 
whilst the posterior parts of the hoof, being less thick and less 
firmly attached to the bone, would yield to a greater extent. 
In its descent the os pedis tends to draw the lamiiicT backwards 
and downwards, so that their inner margins, instead of pointing 
towards the centre of the foot, tend to point towards the bulbs, 
a condition which results in slightly diminishing the height of 
the hoof, diminishing the diameter of the toe and lateral parts 
of the coronet, pressing backwards the bulbs, causing the 
posterior parts of the sole to descend and the heels to widen. 
Immediately pressure is removed, the laminre seek to return to 
their former position and thus restore the normal state of the 
foot. 

At the time when the fetlock is most extended, the lateral 
cartilages and plantar cushion also come more prominently 
into play. The posterior, i.e., the broadest, part of the coronet 
bone glides backwards and downwards between the lateral car- 
tilages, thrusting them apart, and through the medium of the 



124 



THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 



S^>) 



<^ 



^ — ^^m 




tendons exercising pressure on the plantar cushion. As the 
latter is closely connected with the lateral cartilages and com- 
pletely fills the upper depression of the horny frog, it tends to 
drive apart the quarters and to cause the bulbs to swell, while, 
as the horny frog now rests on the ground, it contributes to this 
dilating effect. In the shod hoof, however, the horny frog is not 

always in contact with the 
ground , or at leas t no t through- 
out its whole extent ; it is, 
^ therefore, easy to understand 
\^-^ why the expansion of the hoof 
is more marked at the coro- 
nary border than at the bear- 

FlG. 70.— Vertical cross section of foot seen from iug SUrfaCC of the hCclS. It 
behind (this section has been made nearer the ^ i i i i j_i j. 

heels than fig. 69). a, posterior part of plantar mUSt alSO DC rememberecl toat 

cushion ; 6, median ridge of frog ; c, lateral t n i it i. i. ^ 

cartilage ; d, horn wall ; e, lateral face of frog ; llOOlS WllCn SilOQ arC apt tO DC 
/, point of union between the bars and frog. t t , i r> t 

very dry, and the irog poorly 
developed, or diminished by excessive paring or by disease, and, 
therefore, dilatation at the bearing surface is often difficult 
to detect. These considerations go far towards explaining the 
somewhat common, though erroneous, belief that the bearing 
surface of the heels is incapable of dilatation. 

All parts of the foot, not even excepting the os pedis, are 
elastic, although not to the same extent. The os pedis is least 
elastic ; then comes the horny wall, horny sole, horny frog, 
lateral cartilage, plantar cushion, coronary band, cutis, and sub- 
cutis. The posterior half of the hoof allows of the greatest 
change in form ; a fact which explains the frequent occurrence 
of disease of this portion of the foot under the influence of 
severe work, neglect of the hoof and faulty shoeing. 

1. Movement at the Coronary Border (fig. 72). — While the 
horse stands equally on all four feet, the anterior and lateral 
parts of the coronary border, and especially the points opposite 
which the wall forms an acute angle with the earth, are in a 
condition of tension and incline to contract. At the posterior 
part, where the wall forms an obtuse angle with the ground, 
there is a tendency to dilatation. When considerable weight 
is placed on the foot, that is, during backward and downward 
movement of the fetlock, a slight contraction occurs in the 
anterior parts of the hoof, and extends backwards to a varying 



EXPANSION AT CORONARY BORDER. 125 

distance. In the region of the heels, on the other hand, there 
is distinct dilatation ; the coronary border of the heels bulges 
outwards, a condition clearly visible in hoofs in which the 
coronary border is well curved. Where, however, the latter is 
straight, bulging is imperceptible or fails to occur. The bulbs 
of the heels swell, and are thrust somewhat backwards and 
downwards. If, now% the fetlock rises, the dilatation of the 
coronary border of the heels disappears in a forward direction 
like a fluid wave and with a rapidity proportioned to the speed 
of ascent of the fetlock ; while the contraction of the lateral 
and auterior regions of the coronary border is replaced, 
immediately the foot is lifted, by slight swelling and dilata- 
tion of the coronary border of the toe. With the renewed 
sinking of the fetlock these changes of form are repeated in 
inverse order. Low, flat, broad hoofs show these changes more 
distinctly than those which are deep and upright. Absolute 
rest of the coronary border (at least while the animal is stand- 
ing on the foot) is inconceivable, for the slightest movement of 
the body immediately evokes some change in its form. The 
coronary border of the hoof may be compared with an exceed- 
ingly elastic ring which yields to the slightest pressure of the 
body-weight, dilatation at one part producing a corresponding 
retraction at another. The great elasticity of this ring is due 
to the perioplic horn, which is found at the points where the 
greatest movement occurs — along the quarters as far as the 
bulbs, and at the toe front. Permanent defects in the position 
of the limbs (such as knuckling, etc.) interfere with the normal 
function of the coronary border, and may be followed by 
irregular formation and distortion of the hoof. 

2. Movement at the bearing margin or ground surface 
differs somewhat from that at the coronary border. In front, 
and as far as the centre of the quarter, no distinct change 
occurs ; from the centre of the quarter, however, to the end of 
the bearing surface (fig. 71) it is always possible to demon- 
strate dilatation in sound, unshod hoofs, especially when the 
horn;f sole and horny frog are supported. The amount of 
this dilatation varies, with the weight on the foot, from 01 to 
1-0 millimetre at either side, while it is also greatly depend- 
ant on the angle formed by the heel with the ground. In 
heels which converge in their course from above downwards 



126 



THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 



dilatation is slight, and, in fact, in narrow-heeled feet con- 
traction may replace the normal expansion. The greatest 
obstacle to dilatation, however, is shoeing, inasmuch as it 
removes the counter pressure of the ground to a greater or less 
extent, and prevents the horny sole, horny frog, and bars 
performing their functions in the same degree as they other- 
wise would. In horses working on hard roads it has been 
recommended to employ pads of rubber, so as to transmit the 
counter pressure of the ground to the sole and frog, and so 
promote dilatation, but the advocates of this plan overlook the 
fact that pads press continuously on the frog, and that much of 
their beneficial action is thus lost. 





Figs. 71 and 72.— Right fore-foot seen from below and above. The dotted 
lines show the changes in form which occur at the moment of extreme 
extension of the fetlock joint. 



3. Movements of the Sole. — The horny sole becomes flatter 
under the body-weight, most distinctly at the posterior parts 
of the sole, and least so at the toe and towards the periphery. 
The width of the hoof and thickness of the horny sole are of 
considerable importance in determining the extent of this 
movement, the descent of the sole being greatest towards the 
heels in flat and spreading hoofs. A proof of the changes in 
form of the hoof may be found in the bright and sometimes 
excavated friction surfaces at the heels of the shoe. Peters 
says these prove the existence of two movements of the bearing 
surface of the hoof, that occurring in the longitudinal direction 



MOVEMENT OF BEAllING MARGIN AND SOLE. 127 

producing the deepest depression. One result of this friction 
is the wearing away of the bearing surface of the heel on the 
shoe ; the loss of horn may amount to 5 millimetres or more 
within a month. 

The advantages of expansion of the hoof are manifold. 1. 
The yielding of the tissues protects the hoof and its contents 
from injury, even under the greatest shocks. 2. It greatly 
diminishes at its point of origin the concussion, which would 
otherwise be transmitted to the body, thus assisting the action 
of the limb and adding to its elasticity. 3. It favours nutri- 
tive processes in the parts enclosed by the horny capsule, and 
is of importance in the production of the hoof itself. Move- 
ment is of great importance in insuring sound hoofs and the 
production of healthy horn. If for any reason movement is 
lessened or prevented the hoof suffers. 

Bearing of the above on Practical Shoeing. 

In the practice of shoeing, the chief precaution is to preserve 
normal movement in the foot. We know that shoeing, by 
diminishing or preventing contact between the horny sole and 
frog and the ground, and by fixing the bearing surface of the 
wall to an inflexible ring of iron, checks or prevents movement 
at the bearing margin. One method of shoeing which avoids 
this disadvantage is the tip or modified Charlier. The task of 
the farrier is, therefore, to so form and affix his shoe as to 
minimise ill consequences. In paring the hoof and frog, 
intelligent ideas must prevail. The counter pressure of the 
ground should, if possible, be preserved, and the parts allowed 
to sustain weight each in its appropriate degree. For this 
reason the flat shoe is the most natural. For diseased 
feet the bar shoe is very advantageous ; it unites in itself all 
the good points of the ordinary shoe with few of its disadvan- 
tao-es. It arouses the normal movements of the foot when 
in abeyance, regulates them when disordered, and, if properly 
used, never injures but always improves the diseased or faulty 
hoof. A further point of great importance is a horizontal 
bearing surface in the posterior half of the shoe, equable dis- 
tribution of pressure over the entire circumference of the wall, 
and the insertion of nails in the anterior half of the shoe alone. 



128 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. 



As pads of different kinds indirectly convey to the sole and 
frog the counter pressure of the ground, they may be of use for 
horses working on hard, stony ground, or the pavement of 
towns. For military and agricultural horses they can be 
dispensed with. 



^ 



PART 11. 

THE HORSE'S FOOT IN RELATION 

TO SHOEING. 



SECTIOIsr I. 
SHOEING OF HEALTHY FEET. 

CHAPTER I. 

HORSE-SHOES, ETC. 

The production of a good shoe demands intelligence, skill in 
the use of tools, and the ability to measure accurately with the 
eye ; while the farrier who desires to excel must possess and 
constantly apply a knowledge of the formation and functions 
of the foot. 

1. Material foe the Manufactuke of Shoes. 

Wrought Iron. — The best material is tough, fine grained, 
ductile, wrought iron, which, however, must retain its toughness 
when hot and stand the test of fullering. To obtain special 
durability old shoes are sometimes employed, from one and a- 
half or two of which is produced a new shoe. Such are more 
difficult to make, but being ' steely ' last considerably longer. 

A great many patterns of rolled iron are on the market, 
from which shoes for light horses and for special purposes can 
be made. These special bars when of English manufacture 
are usually seated on the hoof surface ; the German patterns 
are flat. The ground surface of some is roughened by projec- 
tions and recesses, arranged either cross-wise or length-wise or 
in both directions. Of these latter there are many different 

I 



130 



HORSE-SHOES, ETC. 



patterns (fig. 73), but they are now comparatively little used in 
England. With, perhaps, the exception of the ' Grip ' (fig. 80) 
pattern, bars with cross depressions are liable to break on the 
outside when being bent, and, as a rule, shoes prepared from 
them are less tough than tliose made from ordinary bar. 




Fig. 73.— Special forms of rolled bar iron. 

English manufacturers have always been noted for the high 
quality of their products and the essentially practical nature of 
the improvements they have introduced. Below are figured the 
sections of rolled bars most widely used. 

Fig. 74. Eodway section, seated on hoof surface, made in 

sizes from J X |- inch to 1|- X -f inch. This iron was introduced 

many years ago by Messrs Phipson & Warden, 

the patentees, and is now very extensively used. 

It makes suitable shoes for all animals drawing 

light vehicles in cities. The corrugated surface 

gives an excellent foothold, which, on the first introduction of 

the section, was sought to be increased by the use of a specially 

soft iron. Though excellent for the purpose 

mentioned, this section is not sufficiently durable 

for horses in heavy work. 

Fig. 75. Single fullered iron, made in sizes 
from -| X |- inch to 1-g- X -g- inch, is most suitable 

As the nails are scarcely 



Fig. 74.— "Rod 
way bar.* 




Fig. 75.— Single 
fullered bar.* 



for lio'ht harness and saddle horses 



SECTIONS OF KOLLED BAll IRON. 131 

SO secure in a fullered as in a plain stamped shoe, and the dura- 
bility is less, it is not so useful for horses in very heavy work. 
Fig. 76. Plain bevelled bar is made in sizes from f X V^ 
inch to 1^^ X ^ inch, and is used for making plain ^ ^, 



stamped shoes, the bevelling saving labour in f^ \ 

seating out. It serves for shoes for all horses in 
medium and heavy draught, and is especially use- eiiecibar.* 
ful for defective feet on account of the facility with which plain 
shoes can be fitted. This subject will be referred to later when 
speaking of stamped shoes. 

Figs. 77 and 78. Concave iron is made in sizes from \ x y'^ 
inch to 1-|- X I" inch and is used for 




hacks and hmiters, occasionally for \ — , I 
carriage liorses, which must, how- ' 

, , Pi. 1 n Figs. 77 and 78.— Concave bar.* 

ever, have strong reet and well 

arched soles. Section 77 has rather less hold on the ground 
than section 78, but wears correspondingly longer. On account 
of the shape of its inner margin, the latter is best suited for 
horses which forge. 

Fig. 79. Plain concave bar, sizes from -| X ^ inch to 1 X § 
inch, useful for ponies, hacks, and hunters. When ^ \ 
nail holes are stamped in this iron the outer wall \^^m:^A 
becomes vertical, so that a bevelled edge is only left j.j(j,79_piai,i 
inside. Horses shod with it require, on account of concave bar.- 
the narrow bearing surface, specially strong feet with arched 
sole and strong wall. 

Fig. 80. Corrugated ' Grip ' iron, sizes f x -^^ inch to 1^ x y g 
inch, useful for horses in medium draught. 
This iron is less liable to break than other 
sections with cross depressions, but should 
only be used on strong feet, as the nails 
cannot be placed just where needed, and 
(owing to the projections) cannot be so *^^,?;tlV^Gri"' "^charVi^- 
well driven home as in plain shoes. ^'^^■•' stecibar.* 

Fig. 81. Charlier steel, sizes from %y^\ inch to | x \ inch. 
For Charlier shoes only. 

Figs. 82 and 83. Eacing plate steel; 82, 
^ X ;^ inch ; 83, |- X 5; inch. This section 
used only for actual racino;. In training, light figs. 82 and 83-- 

•^ ^ -11 Racing plate steel.* 

fullered shoes are commonly employed. 



132 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. 

Fig. 84. Eacing plate iron, -| x ^ inch. Now little used, 
■' having been superseded by steel. 

. ~^€W - Cast Iron. — To effect a saving in cost many 

Fig. 84.— Eacing attempts have been made to introduce cast shoes. 

plate iron.* 

Up to the present no real success has been recorded, 
although shoes have been produced which admit of being shaped 
and punched at a red heat, if special precautions be observed. 
Even the best cast shoes are extremely brittle both when hot and 
cold, are difficult to ' fit out,' wear more rapidly than wrought 
shoes, give a bad foothold, and expose the horse to the danger 
of slipping. 

Steel is fairly ductile and malleable and possesses the power 
of being ' tempered,' in which condition it is harder and more 
elastic, though more brittle, than before. Certain improve- 
ments recently made in the manufacture of steel seem to point, 
however, to the possibility of using it more extensively, and the 
Paris General Omnibus Company have now employed it for some 
years both for front and hind shoes, to the exclusion of iron. In 
France steel of the kind used costs less than iron. It is said 
to wear with perfect regularity until the shoes are extremely thin. 
The farriers like it, and can turn out per day a larger number 
of shoes than with iron, but certain precautions are needful where 
it is employed : the metal must not be overheated, suddenly 
quenched, nor much worked, in this respect differing from iron, 
which is improved by hammering. The present opinion in 
England is that good iron is sufficiently durable, and that steel, 
unless of a low grade, is too difficult to work, and becomes too 
smooth in use, so that it gives no foothold; but this view deserves 
reconsideration after the successful experiments in Paris. 

Aluminium, being one-third the weight of iron, has been 
used with success for racing plates. When pure, it can even be 
worked cold, but must then be free of silicon, which renders it 
brittle. It should never be heated above a dull red. To 
diminish wear of the shoe, steel nails, with soft shanks and 
hardened heads, are used. Chrome aluminium, being very hard, 
might perhaps be used with advantage. 

Aluminium bronze, composed of aluminium 90 parts, copper 
10 parts, is harder than the pure metal, but must be heated, 
being difficult to work cold. Shoes of this substance are there- 
fore cast, but have not been found sufficiently durable. 



I 



CHARACTERS OF SHOE — FOR^L 133 

Aluminium copper can be wrought at a red heat, but is just 
as heavy as iron. 

Although aluminium resists the action of acids it is readily 
attacked by alkalies, and even on chalky roads wears away very 
quickly. 

Pliosplior bronze was used at Brussels in 1S8U. The shoes 
are cast, must not be warmed, are softer than iron, and seem 
to check slipping. The difficulty of fitting and want of dura- 
bility are, however, against their extended use. 

2. Shoes and their Properties. 

A horse-shoe is an iron or steel rim fastened by nails to the 
wall and covering the bearing surface of the hoof to a greater 
or less extent. All ordinary shoes present two branches, an 
inner and an outer. The anterior part, where both branches 
unite, is termed the toe. The upper surface, upon which the 
hoof rests, is termed the foot surface, the lower is the ground 
surface. The fullering is on the ground surface, the seating 
on the foot surface. Shoes are variously named, according to 
the objects for which they are destined, or to the method of 
manufacture ; for example, fullered shoes, stamped shoes, flat 
shoes, shoes with calkins, summer and winter shoes, etc., of 
which more will be mentioned below. Another division is 
into hand-made and machine-made shoes, but neither of these 
divisions is of special importance. 

Characters of the Shoe. — These may be divided into essential 
and non-essential. The non-essential, however, such as calkins 
or grips in winter, may, under certain circumstances, become 
of great importance. 

(1) Form. — A good shoe should respond exactly to the 
shape of the hoof ; the farrier must therefore, in making the 
shoe, keep clearly in ]iis mind the form of the foot for which 
it is intended. Front and hind, left and right feet differ in 
shape, and each requires a shoe witli certain s])ecial modifica- 
tions (figs. 85, 86, and 87). Too much stress, therefore, cannot 
be laid on the fact that the farriei* must make himself thoroughly 
acquainted with the normal form of the bearing surface and 
fashion his shoe accordingly. It is always well to make the 
shoes in pairs, that is, a left and a right. 



134 



HOKSE-SHOES, ETC. 



(2) Breadth and Thickness.— The breadth of the shoe 
depends, firstly, on the form of the hoof, whether it is narrow 
or wide ; secondly (but the point is very important), on the 




Fig. 85. — Eight front shoe seen 
from below. 



Fig. SG.— The same seen from above. 
a, bearing surface ; b, seated sur- 
face. 



thickness of the wall. As a general rule, twice the thickness 
of the wall, including the white line, will be sufficient. The 
breadth of the toe will, therefore, be from ^ to 1^ inches. 

Wide hoofs require a broader 
shoe than narrow ones. As 
the wall varies in thickness at 
different points and in different 
feet, the shoe also varies, being 
broader at the toe than at the 
heels ; and when intended for 
fore-feet, being broader than for 
hind. For special purposes, like 
racing, very narrow shoes may 
be required, whilst for work on 
stone-paved streets the breadth 
may advantageously be in- 
creased. In Paris, where the 
shoes, for economical reasons, are made very narrow, the feet 
are in general exceptionally bad. Excessive breadth, however, 
increases the risk of slipping on muddy or frozen roads. The 
thickness of the shoe also varies according to the size, weight, 
and duty of the horse and to the kind of ground on which it 




Fig. 87.— Left hind shoe seen from above. 



CHARACTERS OF SHOE — SURFACES AND BORDERS. 135 

works, and may vary from |- up to ^ of an inch or even more. 
As a rule, shoes should be of such tliickness that on a horse 
with sound limbs and doing ordinary work they wear for four 
weeks. Generally, the shoe is made of an even thickness 
throughout, though this is subject to exceptions, — Hat shoes 
being sometimes thicker at the toe, sometimes at the heels. 
The necessity for such special shoes must be judged of by the 
wear of the old shoes. 

Before thickening any portion of a shoe it is well to recall 
that, ccderis parihits, undue thickness at any point means un- 
equal tread, that thickening one side of the shoe only transfers 
the wear to the other, that if one side has to be raised it is 
usually advisable to narrow it from side to side so as to 
preserve an equal balance of weight between the two sides, 
and lastly, that the upper surface of the shoe must always 
be flat, i.e., the projection must appear on the ground and not 
on the foot surface of the shoe. As a rule, it is inadvisable to 
attempt correcting excessive local wear by thickening the shoe 
at the point worn ; by far the better course is to weld in a 
piece of steel, or to give more cover, which increases the dura- 
bility of the part without disturbing the correct relative heights 
of the two sides of the foot. 

(3) Surfaces and Borders. — The upper or hoof surface of 
the shoe may be divided into a bearing surface and a seated 
surface. The bearing surface (fig. 88, a), or that part of the 
shoe which comes in direct contact with 
the wall, must be absolutely horizontal and 
broad enough to cover the bearing surface 
of the wall, including the white line, and a 
narrow ring of the outer circumference of ^''^oj ffo7e^gi7orth^rouSi^ 
the horny sole. In making shoes it is cer- ^''^f ^.J^'tVarS-'sfS 
tainly not always possible to know how f/,f^!fia\Thofe.''^""'''' 
broad the bearing surface of the wall may 
be, but this is not so very important, because the bearing surface 
of the shoe can very easily be made a little broader or narrower 
when fitting. Shoes for heavy horses are always made with 
a rather broader bearing surface than those for light liorses. 
The seated part of the surface (fig. 88, h), which is opposed to 
the horny sole, without, however, touching it, is more or less 
hollowed out accordincr to the condition of the sole, but must 




136 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. 

always be quite distinct from the bearing surface. Shoes for 
horses with very concave soles require little seating, and it is 
only necessary to carefully round off the inner margin. This is 
usually the case in hind shoes (fig. 87). 

The object of this rounding off is to prevent pressure by the 
shoe against the sole. The seating of the hoof surface of front 
shoes need not be deep ; it is sufficient if it amount to, say, -^ 
of an inch ; its width varies from a quarter up to a half the width 
of the entire upper surface. A greater amount of seating than 
this is, in shoes for sound hoofs, rather injurious than useful. 
It is, however, absolutely necessary to see that the inner upper 
edge of the shoe is rounded off. As a matter of fact, in 
many districts shoes having an absolutely level hoof surface 
are used, though the ground surface is recessed or deepened in 
some other way. This shows that, if the paring of the foot 
and the otlier details of shoeing be carefully performed, no 
injury results. Shoes with recessed or dished ground surface 
are not, as is often supposed, at all new. They were known 
at the beginning of the present century (see A Neio System 
of Shoeing Horses, by J. Goodwin, London, 1820). Many 
different forms of shoe with recessed ground surfaces exist. 

The under or ground surface of the shoe exhibits the nail 
holes, with or without fullering. The fullering, or nail furrow, 
is a groove near the outer border of the shoe, through which 
the nail holes are stamped ; sometimes it extends from one 
heel to the other, sometimes it is interrupted. In the latter 
case, the toe and |- to f of an inch of the heels are plain. The 
fuller should extend through at least two-thirds of the thick- 
ness of the iron, which will, therefore, also determine its 
breadth (fig. 88, c). To ensure proper stamping of the nail holes 
both walls of the fuller must be oblique. When the inner 
wall is perpendicular (fig. 89, 1) to the surface of the shoe the 
nail holes are apt to point inwards. The outer border of the 
fuller should never be sharp, and, considering the deeper posi- 
tion of the nail holes at the toe, must be somewhat wider 
towards the front. Although fullering is not absolutely 
necessary, as horses work very well in stamped shoes, yet it 
is certainly a great advantage, for, firstly, it lessens the weight 
of the shoe ; secondly, on account of its roughening the ground 
surface, it somewhat diminishes slipping ; thirdly, it gives the 



FORM OF GROUND-SURFACE OF SHOE. 



137 



shoe a greater range of usefulness ; and fourthly, it facilitates 
the renewal of nails. 

It is scarcely necessary to say that a shoe which is intended 
for fullering must be forged with an oblique outer border, as 
otherwise the outer under edge would be driven too far out- 
wards by the fuller. 

Opinions, both of authors and practitioners, vary greatly as 
to the form of the outer border of the shoe. Some believe 
that the border of the shoe, when the latter is in position, 
should run obliquely downwards and outwards, as though it 






Fig. 89.— Cross sections of four fullered shoes. 1. Fullering bad, 
inner wall beino: too upright. 2. Good. [This is a rolled sec- 
tion of iron. In hand-made shoes the bottom of fullering is 
sharper.] 3. Faulty ; the fullering being too broad for its 
depth. 4. Very faulty ; inner wall inclining inwards. 

formed a prolongation of the hoof. Others are of opinion that 
it should be rounded off, as a round border is best calculated to 
diminish brushing and other like injuries. As a rule, the outer 
border should run downwards and inw^ards, that is, the ckcum- 
ference of the shoe should be slightly smaller at the ground 
than at the hoof surface : otherwise the width may cause 
striking, the shoe will be heavier, and there will be increased 
danger of its becoming loose, or even being cast in soft, heavy 
ground. Exceptions, nevertheless, occur, and will, later, be 
dealt with in the chapter on Fitting. The inner border should 
be smooth and rounded off above and below or dished. 



138 HOKSE-SHOES, ETC. 

(4) Nail Holes (figs. 86 and 88, d). — The form, direction,, 
distribution and number of the nail holes are very important 
and deserve careful consideration. The fact must be carefully 
borne in mind that the nail should not lose its hold until the- 
shoe is virtually worn out, and, therefore, the nail is formed 
with a pyramidal head and the shoe with a deep fuller, through 
which the nail holes are stamped. The fullering must, there- 
fore, correspond with the form of the nail head, so that the one- 
exactly fits the other, and necessarily the fullering tool must 
correspond in section to the shape of the head of the nail. 

The shoe should be fastened with the smallest number of 
nails which will hold it firmly, and it has been stated by Miles 
that under some circumstances even three nails are sufficient 
to give a good hold. Each nail makes a hole, which weakens 
the wall. Experience teaches that six nail holes are sufficient, 
at least in front shoes, and that only very large and heavy 
shoes, and hind shoes especially, require as many as seven or- 
eight. A well-fitted shoe is very easy to affix, but a faulty 
shoe may be difficult to secure even with eight or ten nails. 
The best formed nail holes, however, may be very bad indeed 
if badly placed, and it is imperative to remember that naili 
holes should be so disposed that nails driven through them 
with reasonable care will enter sound horn, will not injure- 
the soft parts, will not split the horny wall, and will not 
diminish the elasticity of the hoof. To meet these demands 
the nail holes must, when the shoe is in position, correspond! 
with the white line at the point where the latter comes in 
contact with the bearing surface of the wall. In a well-formed 
shoe, therefore, the nail holes appear close to the inner border 
of the bearing surface (fig. 88, d). The distance of the nail 
holes from the outer margin of the shoe must vary according 
to the thickness of the horny wall. When they are so far 
from the outer margin that the nail tends to penetrate the 
horny sole, the nail holes are ' coarse ' ; when, on the other 
hand, they approach the outer margin of the shoe so that the 
nail passes directly into the outer sheath of the horny wall, they 
are ' fine.' In either case, the holes are improperly punched or 
the shoe is ' badly holed ' if intended for a normal foot. When 
the holes, though in good position, point too obliquely inwards, 
and, therefore, give the nail a wrong direction, the shoe is alsa 



X AIL- HOLES — FORM AND TOSITIOX. 



139 



described as badly holed. Each hole must be funnel-shaped, 
clean and open. In the fore-feet the nail holes can only be 
placed in the anterior half of the shoe without injury to the 
elasticity of the foot, and the last nail hole in the outer quarter 
of the shoe should not be more than y\ to f of an inch behind 
an imaginary transverse line dividing the shoe into two equal 
parts ; that in the inner branch as close as possible to it. This 
division of the foot into an anterior and posterior half responds 
to the varying thickness of the wall and to the dilatation 
which occurs in the posterior half of the foot. The direction 
of the holes must vary according to the varying obliquity of 
the wall of the foot. The nail holes of the toe should, there- 
fore, be directed obliquely inwards, the more lateral less so, and 
the nail holes of the quarter should point almost directly up- 
wards. In contracted feet it may in fact be needful to even 
give the nail holes of the quarter a slight cant outwards. 
Further, it should be remembered that the less thickness of 
the inner horny wall and the position of the shoe on the foot 
call for finer punching in the inner limb of the shoe.* 

The nail holes of the hind shoe may be distributed through 
the two anterior thirds of the shoe, though the nail holes of the 
toe should be wider apart (fig. 87). The hind foot has, in com- 
parison with the fore, stronger 
quarters and is less exposed to 
disease. The extension of the nail 
holes into the posterior half of 
the shoe is justified by practice. 
Were it neglected, the shoe w^ould 
soon become loose or lost durino- 
work in heavy ground. This prac- 
tice is especially necessary in shoe- 
ing military horses, either during 
manceuvres or in war. The offi- 
cial German military shoe, accord- 
ing to its size, contains from six- 
teen to twenty nail holes (fig. 90) ; not, however, for the purpose 

111 this connection it is surprising to find veterinary surgeons (who are also 
owners of forges) still gravely disputing as to whether nail holes should correspond 
in inclination to the wall of the foot or be perfectly perpendicular. See Vder- 
incmj Record, Nos. 404 and 405, 1896, and Veterinarian {Re\)ori^ oi Veterinary 
Medical Societies), Fourth Series, No. 497, May 1896, p. 181. 




Fig. 90. 



-German military shoe for 

fore-feet. 



140 HOKSE-SHOES, ETC. 

of allowing more nails to be driven, but only to permit of 
selecting a better position. Contraction of the hoof need not 
be feared if the horse has plenty of movement. 

(5) Clips are small, flattened, upward projections from the outer 
border of the shoe. They are ' drawn ' from the edge on the anvil. 
The base of every clip must be strong and sound. Above, the clip 
becomes thinner, so that it may be moulded to the form of the 
wall by a few taps of the hammer. To prevent injury of 
soft parts, the free border of the clip should be bevelled off. 
Clips on hind shoes should be stronger than those on fore. In 
light shoes the clips need only be as high as the shoe is thick, 
but in shoes for heavy van horses they may advantageously be 
made higher. 

According to their position we distinguish toe, quarter, and 
heel clips. In either case the object is to strengthen the hold 
of the shoe, or, rather, to prevent the shoe shifting in position. 
Where the horse wears unequally, a tendency always exists for 
the shoe to be displaced towards the side which comes last in 
contact with the ground. The clips should, therefore, be placed 
on the opposite side. Only a toe clip is necessary when the 
tread is level. In the greater number of cases the shoe is dis- 
placed inwards, for which reason the outer rim of the shoe is 
often provided with a quarter clip. Heel clips may sometimes 
be required when a horse overreaches and cuts, or when the feet 
are excessively broken. 

In forming the heels of a flat shoe, it is advisable to cut off 
each heel with the half-round cutter in such a way that the 
posterior margin runs downwards and forwards, and the outer 
angle of the heel is moderately rounded off. 

3. FoRrxiNG THE Shoe. 

With sliglit modifications the method of forging hereafter 
described is applicable to both light and heavy shoes, and has 
the advantage of producing a clean, workmanlike, and elegant 
shoe. The method of forging seen in France, where the shoe 
is formed under three hammers and with only one heat, is also 
practised in Austria and South and West Germany, but although 
we admire the dexterity displayed, we cannot regard the system 
itself as worthy of imitation, the results being very imperfect. 




To face "p. 141.] 



TOOLS FOE FORGING SHOE. 141 

The fireman's tools (see Plate) consist of a turning hammer, 
boss hammer, tongs, stamps, fullers, pritchels, drawing knife, 
footrule, heel cutters, heel crease, compass (with or without 
set-screw), concave tools, anvil and vice. A very few words 
on each must suffice. 

The turning hammer has one fiat and one convex face, weighs 
about 3i lbs., and is used for turning the shoe ; hence its name. 
The boss hammer is about the same weight, and is used for 
drawing clips and fitting on the shoes. Many farriers use only 
a turnino" hammer. 

The tongs are used for holding the iron whilst making the 
shoe, and several sizes are required to take different sizes of 
iron. 

Stamps are used to make, and pritchels to clear out, the 
nail holes. The stamp, having a comparatively obtuse point, 
forms the countersunk part of the nail hole which accommo- 
dates the nail head, the pritchel completes the operation, and 
finishes that part of the nail hole in which lies the ' neck ' of 
the nail. Fullers form the groove or ' crease ' around the edge 
of the shoe, and should correspond in section to the shape of 
the nail-head. 

The fireman uses a drawing knife only to cut out the clip- 
hole at the toe, and to press the shoe home when fitting it to 
the foot. The knife drawn indicates very clearly how this is 
done. 

A footrule is sometimes useful in measuring the width of 
foot preparatory to cutting iron for a shoe, and in measuring 
the length of iron required. A compass often replaces the 
rule. When roughing, the width of the shoe at the nail holes is 
measured, the set-screw turned, and a permanent record ob- 
tained for fixing the exact width of the shoe at the heels. 

The purpose of heel-cutters is sutticiently explained by their 
name. Several sizes are needed for different work. The heel 
crease is used after the heel is cut off ; it finishes the work and 
saves labour in filing up the shoe. 

' Concave tools ' are used to give the proper bevel to the 
concave shoe. For good work they are very necessary. Three 
sizes (^ inch, ^ inch, and 1 inch) are required. 

The anvil is of the form shown, weighs from 2^ to 3 cwt., 
and is firmly fixed to a block of wood deeply sunk in the ground, 



142 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. 

or, nowadays, is more frequently carried on an iron anvil-block 
of specially strong construction. The face of the anvil should 
be about 27 inches from the ground and slightly tilted away 
from the side at which the lireman works. The anvil itself 
consists of a body and beak. The body has two holes 
pierced at the end furthest from the beak, one square, the other 
round. The square hole takes the concave tools, large-sized 
heel cutters, and the heel crease, etc. ; the fireman works over 
it when pritchelling the nail holes of large shoes. The 
round hole is for small heel cutters and for working over when 
punching holes for cogs, screws, etc. The body of the 
anvil is of iron, the working surface being formed of a thick 
plate of well-tempered steel, welded on. The edges should not 
be too sharp, especially at the points where clips are usually 
drawn, as the clip may be cut off. 

The vice holds the shoe when being hot-rasped or ' filed up.' 
In some instances, as when it is necessary to thicken up the 
heels, work can be done in the vice which could scarcely be 
effected on the anvil. The vice also comes into play for holding 
the shoe when holes are being tapped to receive frost screws. 

For a description of other tools used in shoe-making, see 
p. 203, where the doorman's tools are described together. 

Though superfluous to the working farrier, a few words on 
managing the fire may not be altogether out of place. On 
commencing work the lire is lit with a few shavings or a bundle 
of straw. Immediately a good body of red embers is produced, 
the doorman inserts a piece of -J-inch round iron (or the farrier's 
poker) in the nozzle of the tue-iron, and, whilst keeping the 
bellows gently acting, begins ramming damp coals around this 
and over the surface of the back plate with a sledge, fire-tongs, 
or other heavy object until a firm coherent mass about 9 inches 
in thickness and 5 in height is produced (the ' back ').* He 
then builds up the fire, which extends beyond the back, with 
dry coal, and inserts the bars of iron, which have been cut mean- 
while by the fireman and second doorman, in pairs in the fire. 
As a rule, a good workman will be content with six bars in the 
fire at one time, each pair being laid horizontally, alongside, 
and as close as possible to the preceding pair. The bars 
inserted are at once covered with dry coal, the bellows worked 

* Note. — If tlie ' back ' be made up overnight it will last much longer. 




»<; 









ITofacc p. 142. 



FOEGING A FOKE-SHOE. 143 

vigorously, and once the fire is found to be going well a few 
shovelsful of damp coal are scattered over all. During the 
time the first doorman is preparing the fire and heating the 
bars the fireman and second doorman will have cut a couple of 
dozen lengths of iron. 

Forging a Fore Shoe. — As soon as the first pair of bars is seen 
to have reached a regular bright cherry-red heat, the fireman 
grasps a bar in his tongs and, withdrawing it, lays one end on 
the head of a sledge held by doorman No. 1, near the heel of 
the anvil, and, allowing it to rest lengthwise on the anvil, strikes 
with his turning hammer near the centre in turn with the 
second doorman, who, of course, uses a sledge. He then lays 
it edge up on the flat of the anvil, and the two doormen, strik- 
ing alternately, and working from toe to heel, draw down the 
bar and partly form (bend) the shoe. The bar is then trans- 
ferred to the beak of the anvil, and, still working from toe to 
heel, is still more drawn down, while, by reason of the manner 
in w^hich it is held, the foot surface is fashioned rather wider 




Fig. 91.— Partly completed fore shoe. 



than the ground surface, to allow for subsequent dilatation at 
the ground surface caused by punching nail holes. Shoes 
to be afterwards fullered must be made micch wider, as the 
fullering drives out the edge of the shoe to a considerable 
extent. It is at this stage, when the shoe is transferred to the 
beak, that it acquires the form necessary for a right or left foot 
as the case may be. By turning his hand outwards, so that 
the knuckles come upwards, the fireman gives the bevel for a 
right-sided shoe; on the other hand, by turning the hand 



144 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. 

inwards, with the thumb above and the knuckles downwards, a 
left-sided shoe is started. Though difficult to describe, the 
manoeuvre will be easily understood on grasping a pair of tongs 
and imagining the results of turning the hand in either of the 
directions described. In bending the shoe at this stage the 
curve must be exaggerated, as the subsequent ' seating-out ' 
tends to straighten the iron once more. In making a fullered 
shoe a good workman will, while worhing on the leak, diminish 
not only the thickness, but also the breadth, of the toe, leaving 
it slightly thinner than the quarter. The width is restored in 
seating-out, as the seating is more pronounced at the toe than 
elsewhere. We have italicised the words luhile working on the 
heak, because, although often omitted nowadays, owing to its 
difficulty, it is only at this stage that such thinning can properly 
be performed. 

From the beak the shoe is returned to the fiat of the anvil 
and seated out to within ^ or J inch from the heel under the 
rounded ends of the two sledge-hammers. If needful, the shoe 
is next fullered, commencing at the toe and terminatiug at the 
heel. The ' crease ' is applied yL to ^ of an inch from the 
outer margin, according to the size of the shoe. Doorman No. 
1 then leaves to prepare the next bar, and No. 2 strikes for 
the fireman who stamps the nail holes. These are formed so 
as to correspond in direction with the inclination of the wall, 
and not vertically as stated by certain writers. The fireman 
then pritchels the nail holes, removes the bulgings (due to 
stamping holes) from the outside of the shoe, finishes the seat- 
ing-out, leaving the surface smooth and even, and returns the 
shoe to the fire. The inner branch of the shoe is formed in 
a precisely similar way, though fullering takes place in the 
reverse direction. 

Forging a Hind Shoe. — In forging a hind shoe the iron is 
bent as above and transferred to the beak of the anvil, on 
which the quarter is drawn down under the two sledges, 
assisted by the fireman's hammer. The toe and heel must, 
however, be left of full strength, the former on account of the 
toe being the part most exposed to wear, and the latter because, 
to secure a sound and strong shoe, the calkin must be turned 
over in the fall thickness of the iron. Many firemen draw 
down the heel excessively and have then to turn over a great 



FORGING A FORE SHOE. 145 

length of iron to form the calkin and to bring it to the proper 
thickness under the sledge. This is bad practice for two 
reasons : it is wasting energy to draw down the bar and then 
' upset it ' again, and the fibre of the turned down portion 
cuts through and weakens that of the branch of the shoe just 




Fig. 92.— Partly completed hind shoe. 

where it should be strongest, i.e., just at the commencement of 
the calkin. In turning down the calkin the shoe is laid flat 
on the anvil and steadied by the doorman placing on it his 
sledge while the actual bending is done by the fireman with 
his turning hammer. Another fault of the bad workman is 
not to turn over his calkin sqiicire,, and thus to render the inner 
margin of the shoe considerably shorter than the outer. 

The shoe is now returned to the anvil, ground surface 
upwards, and the calkin flattened down under the turning 
hammer and sledge. The fireman then ' takes out the 
hammer-marks ' on the beak of the anvil at the same time 
that he straightens the shoe, if, as is often the case, the toe be 
too round, and also rounds the quarter or heel to the necessary 
deuree. The better the workman the less of this work will be 
needed. The nail holes are next stamped, the outside toe 
nail hole being stamped rather ' fine ' (^.e., near the outer 
margin of the shoe) but obliquely, and each succeeding nail 
hole being rather ' coarser '' but more upright than its pre- 
decessor. The inside nail holes are stamped somewhat finer, 
but at about the same inclination, or perhaps a trifle more 
upright than the outer. 

In making a double-heeled shoe the above process is re- 

K 



146 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. 

peated, the nail holes being, however, stamped in inverse order, 
but in making a wedge- heeled shoe, after forming the outside 
as before, the second operation is as follows : the iron is first 
turned on edge on the fiat of the anvil and the wedge formed, 
after which the quarter is drawn either on the beak or flat as 
may be preferred. 

In making a shoe for cutting or interfering, the second opera- 
tion is all conducted on the beak. It commences by slightly 
drawing the toe (in this respect differing from the method of 
making all other shoes) ; the full strength of the iron is then 
used to form the inside branch of the shoe, while the bar is so 
inclined that the inside branch shows a marked bevel. Only 
two nail holes are stamped, slightly towards the inside of the 
toe. After punching these it may be needful to lay the shoe 
ground surface upwards on the face of the anvil and give two 
or three blows to flatten the shoe at the toe ; otherwise every- 
thing is done on the beak. 

In making a bar-shoe the piece of iron selected must be 
considerably longer than that needed for an ordinary shoe. 
The bar is bent at the toe, and with the same heat the amount 
of iron necessary to form half the ' bar ' is turned round at 
right angles to the greatest thickness of the bar. The shoe is 
next rounded and shaped on the beak, seated on the face of 
the anvil, the half of the ' bar ' turned round is ' scarfed ' 
(i.e., thinned down), and the nail holes are punched (in many 
cases only two or three nail holes are inserted at this stage). 
The inside of the shoe is formed at the second heat, and the 
fireman may then try the shoe on the foot. As the subsequent 
welding of the two parts of the ' bar ' drives apart the heels by 
half an inch or more, the shoe must at this stage be somewhat 
narrow at the back. A third heat is required for welding the 
two parts of the ' bar,' and a fourth or even a fifth may be 
required for fully fitting out the shoe and stamping the last 
nail holes, especially if the foot be much broken or otherwise 
defective. Altogether the making of a bar-shoe is a very 
excellent test of the fireman's skill and judgment. 

4. Varieties of Shoes. 
A great number of varieties of shoes can be distinguished 



CLASSIFICATION OF SHOES. 



147 



according to their breadth, thickness, weight, the presence of 
calkins or toe-grips, the kind of work demanded of the horse, 
and the special objects for which shoes are sometimes required, 
such, for instance, as the treatment of diseases of the foot, or 
the prevention of slipping in frosty weather. 

Among them we distinguish shoes for (1) hacks ; (2) hunters ; 
(3) race-horses ; (4) trotters ; (5) carriage horses ; (6) omnibus 
horses ; (7) cart horses ; (8) special systems of shoeing like 
Charlier's, Fitzwygram's, and the Turkish shoe ; (9) winter 
shoes; (10) shoes for 'forging' and ' cutting ' ; and (11) shoes 
for defective and diseased hoofs. 

When we remember that all these styles are of different 
sizes and vary in themselves, we may obtain some idea of the 
varieties of shoes, especially as each particular kind may be 
modified for a special purpose. For example, a shoe with toe- 
grip and heels may be used in forging and cutting or may serve 
as a winter shoe, or it may be arranged to take a special pad, etc. 

A few remarks (chiefly in relation to manufacture) on 
shoes with calkins, toe-pieces, etc., are offered below, but a de- 
scription of the special shoes required for different services 
demands considerable technical knowledge, and is therefore 
reserved for a later chapter. 

Shoes luitJi Calkins. — Shoes with calkins are formed by 
turning down the heels of the shoe towards the ground or 





Fig. 93. — Right fore shoe with calkins. «, clip. 



Fig. 94.— Shoe with 
obliquely cut off 
heel. 



(occasionally) by welding on a piece of steel to the heel. Cal- 
kins may, therefore, be regarded as downward prolongations of 
the limbs of the shoe. Little need be said of the makins; of 
such, the form, breadth, surfaces, borders, and nail holes being 
of just the same description as in other shoes. Under the 
head of cart-horse shoes may be included a short description 
of calkins and toe-grips, especially in relation to front shoes. 



148 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. 

Calkins should be at right angles to the shoe, regular and 
quadrangular in outline and not too high. The best are more 
or less square in section and their corners are rounded off 
(figs. 93 and 103, h). When of this form they are most easily 
sharpened in winter. Front shoes are sometimes provided 
with calkins bevelled away obliquely at the back. They are 
most useful for horses that cut (fig. 94). 

The height of the calkin should be twice the thickness of 
the portion of the shoe immediately in front of it, and both 
calkins should be of the same height. The greatest injury is 
done when the outer calkin is lower than the inner. The inner 
upper edge of the heel should be well rounded off so as to give 
space for the frog. 

Shoes are sometimes formed with a longish quadrangular 
projection termed a toe-piece or toe- grip (fig. 103, a). Toe-grips 
were introduced later than calkins. They were intended to 
grasp the ground and to give the shoe greater durability. 
Toe-pieces in hind shoes give draught horses a much better 
hold in winter and on slippery ground. 

The grips, usually made of a special steel, though sometimes 
only of iron, are separately forged. According to their form 
they are termed diamond-headed, chisel-headed, and blunt. The 
diamond-headed require two heats, the chisel-headed only one 
heat in forging. The chisel-headed also is a better and more 
useful form than the diamond and does not require any special 
anvil. The blunt grip is applied by heating the grip and shoe 
and then welding together. In practice some prefer one form, 
some another. 

One manufacturer, Mr Wooldridge, makes a specialty of 
self-fastening toe and heel-pieces. His system consists in fit- 
ting a tapered-shank cog into a parallel-sided hole. The hole 
should be of such size that when the cog is inserted and lightly 
driven home a space exists between the shoulder of the cog 
and the surface of the shoe. The weio-ht of the horse actin<y 
on the cogs then tends to drive them still further home, so 
that the longer the cogs are worn the more firmly do they be- 
come fixed. We believe this method of shoeing has proved 
very successful and is largely used in the North. In fitting, a 
punch is first driven through the foot surface of the shoe. 
Then a drift is passed through the aperture left by the punch, 



SHOES WJTll KEMOVABLE TOE AND HEEL PIECES. 



149 



care being taken not to hammer the shoe so as to alter the 
size or shape of the hole after drifting. When the shoe is 
cold the rough edges left on the ground surface are filed away 




Fig. 95.— Shoe fitted for removable toe and heel pieces. 

and the holes opened with an opening punch, so that the cog 
or toe-piece will go half way into the shoe without drivin^^. 
This completes the operation and leaves the shoe as shown in 





Figs. 96, 97, and 9S.— Heel-pieces (sharp). 



Fig. 99.— Blunt heel-piece. 



fig. 95. The succeeding figures show various forms of cogs 
and toe-pieces. Owing to their form, these cogs, etc., always 
wear with a sharp edge, and their shanks being elongated, the 
holes required do not weaken the shoe. 

To remove old cogs the wedge-shaped pronged tool illustrated 
is driven between the shoulder of the cocr and surface of the 



150 HOESE-SHOES, ETC. 

shoe, when the worn cog can at once be detached and replaced 
by a new one. For winter use this method is of undoubted 
value. The inventor also recommends it as a permanent 
means of shoeing. Being without personal experience of the 
results, we pronounce no judgment on this head. 

Toe-grips should never be higher than the calkins, but the 




Fig. 100.— Removable toe-piece 



calkins may well be some fractions of an inch thicker than 
above indicated. The height and breadth of the grip, and 
even the exact position where it should be inserted, depend 
mainly upon the way the horse moves and the wear of the 
old shoe. Whether steel or iron should be employed depends 
upon special circumstances. When it is necessary to increase 
the durability of the shoe, or, as during frost, to make the 
sharpened grips last longer, steel is the best material, but 



Fig. 102.— -Tool for removing old heel-pieces. 

when it is only a question of preventing slipping on stone 
pavement iron is preferable. 

In fore-feet calkins and toe-grips are seldom necessary, nor are 
they desirable for the health of the hoof ; on the other hand, in 
winter they are sometimes very useful (see ' Winter Shoeing '). 
In summer they do not prevent slipping and stumbling on 
stone pavement with absolute certainty. The condition of th^ 
pavement is here of less account than the convexity of the 
individual stones ; the more convex the latter the less secure 
the horse's foothold. In this respect careful driving is of more 
importance than special shoeing. Though calkins are less used 



MACHINE-MADE SHOES. 



151 




Fig. 103. 



-Left hind shoe with (a) toe-grip and 
(&) calkins. 



than formerly they are still often employed when they might 
well be dispensed with. In the majority of cases they are 
certainly not necessary in 
front shoes. Fore-feet are 
more liable to disease than 
hind-feet, which fact should 
alone be sufficient ground 
for using calkins on fore 
shoes as little as possible. 
In Glasgow, Edinburgh, the 
North of England, and in 
Vienna, calkins are very 
common ; in Paris and Lon- 
don less so, a proof that 
the above principles are not 
to be rigidly adhered to in 
every case. 

Machine-made Shoes. — The trade in machine-made shoes, 
which has been in existence for the past thirty years, has now 
assumed enormous pro- 
portions, the small de- 
fects that exist in most 
machine - made shoes 
being more than coun- 
terbalanced by the sav- 
ing in time and money. 
The nail holes are not 
always correct, most 
machine-made shoes being too finely holed. There is little 
distinction between right and left shoes, and to give increased 
durability, greater toughness is desirable. 

In Germany many shoes are sent out ready for driving, the 
heels being finished, calkins turned down, toe-grips affixed, clips 
drawn, and the shoes finished complete in every part. Such shoes, 
therefore, only require to be selected and fitted to the feet, the 
necessary alterations being slight. They are especially useful 
when hot shoeing is inconvenient or impossible, as, for instance, 
in the Colonies and on military expeditions. Without going into 
the question whether cold is better than hot fitting, we may 
say that the production of finished machine-made shoes should 




Fig. 104. — Steel rod with toe and heel grips partly formed. 



152 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. 

certainly give a great impulse to the former method. Finished 
shoes are supplied by one or more German firms, and wq 
should imagine some of our English firms might undertake 
the same business with success. 

Every method of shoeing, even the best, produces numerous 
bad results, such as contraction, diminished horn production, 
etc., as well as other more recondite changes. Such results 
become most noticeable when the horse is worked on hard 
pavements, and are less serious on soft, heavy ground. They 
are aggravated by slipping on smooth surfaces and by shocks 
of all kinds. The many small but unavoidable effects of 
shoeing form a prolific cause of disease in the limbs. This 
fact has long been recognised, and attempts have been made 
to remedy it by changes in the method of shoeing. Each of 
such changes removes one or more evils. One of the most 
important was the attempt to produce an easier, softer method 
of going, which should both prevent slipping and diminish the 
shock to the limb. Accordingly, soft, elastic materials have 
been employed, either to entirely replace iron, or to be used in 
combination with it. 

In consequence, pads composed of rubber, plaited rope, 
leather, wood, etc., have been provided to cover varying pro- 
portions of the hoof. These will be further considered in a 
special chapter. 

The reasons why many of these novelties have only a fleet- 
ing existence are, that they do not sufficiently fit the hoof, 
and because they will not bear the necessary warming or 
working. As the hoof should never be formed to fit the shoe, 
but the shoe to fit the hoof (due regard being had to the 
distribution of weight), the ground of this failure is fairly 
apparent. 



CHAPTER 11. 

WINTER SHOEING. 

In order to give the horse a better foothold when the 
roads are covered with ice and snow, special shoes or special 
modifications of the ordinary shoe, which at other times would 
be superfluous or even injurious, become necessary. 

These additions or modifications varv accordins; to the 
severity of the weather and the work required of the animal. 
They are all comprised under the collective term ' roughing,' 
though the special styles are too numerous for detailed descrip- 
tion here. Therefore only a few of the more practical will be 
noted. 

In the far north, where snow lies deep and winter weather 
continues for several months, simple methods of roughing may 
be employed, though in more changeable latitudes these would 
soon be rendered useless by contact with the hard ground. 

All systems of roughing at present in use are more or less 
imperfect. The chief objects to keep in view are briefly 
summarised below. 

(1) Simplicity. — No system can ever succeed wliich is not 

simiole of execution, or in which the farrier is required 
to use many special tools. Furthermore, the applica- 
tion of the ' rough ' must be an even simpler matter 
than the preparation of the shoe, so that any stable- 
man may affix it. Finally, the ' rough ' must be easy 
to remove. 

(2) Rapidity in the preparation of the shoe and the affixing 

and removal of the ' rough ' is almost as important 
as simplicity of application, especially in the army. 

(3) Economy must be kept in view, as the expense of 

rouohincr a lar^e stud durino: a loncj winter would 
otherwise prove excessively costly. 



154 WINTER SHOEING. 

(4) Durability. — The ' rough ' must neither wear away fast 

nor become loose, otherwise it may lead to dangerous 
cutting or to severe falls. At the same time, as 
increase of weight is a disadvantage, durability must 
be sought by the use of the best material. The 
method of fastening must also be such that the ' rough ' 
can be affixed even when the shoe is considerably 
worn. 

(5) Adaptahility. — A proper system should be adaptable to 

all horses, all kinds of work, and to all shoes. 

(6) Efficiency is more or less represented by the sum of the 

above, but also depends on the depth to which the 
' roughs ' enter the ground, and on their number. It 
becomes less, of course, as wear advances. 

1. EouGH Nailing. 

Eough nailing consists in removing an inner and an outer 
nail, and replacing them by others with pointed or chisel-shaped 
heads. This method does very well for saddle horses and 
animals used only occasionally and for light work. 

In the German army rough nails are employed in addition 
to screws of three sizes. In Denmark and other northern 
countries large, strong nails, with heads case-hardened by means 
of ferrocyanide of potassium, are a common means of roughing, 
a specially large hole being punched in the toe of the shoe. 
Such nails are termed ' broddar,' and replace the ordinary 
toe-grip. They can, of course, be changed from time to time, 
and appear to suit the local requirements excellently. Eough 
nails, the shanks of which do not pass through the horny wall, 
but are driven through special holes in the shoe, and turned 
down on its upper and outer border, are technically known as 
' stubs,' and are largely used in England, France, Denmark, 
Sweden, Finland, and North America. They can be inserted 
at any point in the shoe, though the heels and inner and 
outer parts of the toe are the best places. 

Of those shown here the wedge-headed are the best, and 
wear longest. Owing to their small mass the diamond-headed 
soon lose their efficiency, in addition to which they are more 
likely to inflict injury on the coronet of the opposite foot. 



FROST NAILS AND STUBS. 



155 



Delperier invented a special form of nail now largely used 
in France, to prevent slipping on smooth granite ' setts ' and 




Frost nails. 



Frost stubs. 



Fia. 105. 



also on frozen macadamised roads. It is simple, durable, and 
effective. 

The nail consists of a head, neck, and shank. The head is 
cubical, this form having been found more durable and gener- 
ally useful than the pointed or wedge heads. The wearing 
surface presents two deep cuts dividing it into four parts, and 







Fig. 106.— Delperier's frost nail. 

improving its holding power on the roadway. The head is 
of the same height as the web of the shoe to which the nail is 
attached. Experience shows that this is more than sufficient 
to wear for one day. The neck and sliank are relatively very 
short and stout. 



156 



WINTER SHOEING. 



For making the holes in the shoe a special stamp (see fig. 
109) is employed. The shoe being at a red heat, the stamp is 
applied at the proper point on the lower surface, and driven 
through half the thickness of the shoe in a vertical direction ; 
the stamp is then slightly inclined, and with a few more blows 
of the hammer is caused to emerge at the upper and outer 
edge. The hole is then punched back so as to leave a clear 
passage, and when the shoe is cold, any burr is filed off. Two 
holes are punched in each limb of the shoe. 

To prevent the holes being filled up or burred over, Del- 
perier uses two forms of nail, one for ordinary and one for 
frosty w^eather. As the nails are disposed at similar points in 
each half of the shoe, the balance is in nowise altered, and 
this method is now extensively used in Paris and other large 
tow^ns throughout the year. 

In use the nails are slipped into the holes, driven home 
and the shank turned down on the outer edge of the shoe. - If 





I'IG. 107.— Stamp for Delp6rier's Fig. 108.— Section of shoe with Delperier's 

frost nail. nail inserted. 

the shoe be thin, it may be necessary to cut the shank some- 
what shorter, just as the point of an ordinary horse nail is cut 
before forming the clench. 



2. EOUGHING BY MeANS OF ShARP HeELS AND TOES. 

The outer heel is ' steeled,' then drawn down, and sharpened 
on the anvil at a right angle to the web of the shoe (fig. 109) 



i 

I 



METHODS OF EOUGHING. 



157 




Fig. 1U9. Fig. iio. 

Fig. 109. — Outer heel 'sharpened.' 
Fig. 110. — Inner heel 'sharpened.' 



This form remains sharp foi' a longer time and wears more 
regularly than any other. The inner heel is wedge-shaped, 
and is also at right angles to the 
web. To prevent cutting it is best 
not to make it quite sharp and to 
round off the outer edge (fig. 110). 

This is the oldest method of 
roughing, and may be applied to all 
horses employed at slow work. In 
heavy cart horses a small piece of 
steel is sometimes let into the toe 
(of the shoe) and sharpened. A special kind of steel is made 
for this purpose, which welds easily and thoroughly with iron. 
In order to obtain the greatest wear, such toe-grips should be 
hardened, though it is not desirable to render them too brittle 
by suddenly cooling the entire shoe. ....4r^ 

Eousjhing; one heel is insufficient, and should be condemned. 

As the above method of roughing requires the removal of 
the shoe each time it is renewed, serious disadvantages follow 
its repeated use. Firstly comes the loss of the animal's service 
while waiting at the farrier's, to w^hich must be added the too 
frequent injuries from pricking as well as injuries to the wall. 




Fig. 111.— Count von Eiusieders winter shoe for 
fi'ont feet. 



Fig. 1112.— The same for hind-feet. 



Even when the greatest care is used, the hoof will not bear 
removal of the shoe more than five to six times per month. 
These drawbacks led to the invention of Count von Eiii- 



158 



WINTER SHOEING. 



siedel's winter shoe (figs. Ill and 112). This shoe has neither 
calkins nor toe-pieces ; its ground surface is divided into two 
sharp edges by means of a deep fuller. It is made from 
three-cornered rolled iron which is cut into the necessary 
lengths, bent into form, and then fullered. The hind shoe 
differs from the front in that its heels are sharp and are bent 
forward in the direction of the bars. They are thus very 
useful in preventing slipping in a forward direction. 



3. EOUGHING WITH SCREWS. 

The necessity for the use of good iron has already been in- 
dicated, but this is of special importance in the manufacture of 
shoes which are destined to carry screws, because if it be want- 
ing in toughness, brittle at a red heat, or show a tendency to 
fissure, it will not permit of screwing. With the 
exception of the heels, the shoe exactly resembles 
an ordinary shoe, and even the heels do not re- 
quire to be much thicker or broader than in the 
common variety. 

The holes are made either by punching or 
boring. In punching an almost cylindrical punch 
is used, and the hole completed on a round drift 
thickest in the middle. This drift, for a distance 
of |- of an inch in the centre, should be as thick 
as the tap afterwards employed to produce the 
screw. The ground opening should be slightly 
countersunk (fig. 113), so that after the thread 
has been cut, the screw may sit close to the 
surface of the heel. 

The screws are made either of iron or a special 
steel, and their manufacture is seldom undertaken by the work- 
ing farrier. Iron is soft, and, therefore, less durable, but steel is 
excellent for the purpose, and when the screws, with the excep- 
tion of the thread, are hardened by heating to a dull red and 
cooling in damp sand, they possess the greatest resistance to 
wear, and at the same time sufficient toughness. The method 
employed by Schafer of Dresden is as simple as it is practical. 
It is also used in the School of Practical Farriery, Dresden. 
As it may be useful under certain circumstances, a short de- 




FIG. 113. — Heel of 
"screwed" shoe 
with countersunk 
hole. 



FKOST SCKEWS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 



159 



scription is appended. The screws are formed of square steel 
from -J to ^ inch in thickness, a special anvil being employed 
(fig. 114, c and a). The mould for forming the shank {a, a) 
is held in the centre of the anvil in two special guides {n, n). 
It is of steel, and possesses, as shown by the figure, two 
moulds or grooves of dissimilar breadth, of which that on the 
right is for the preparation, and that on the left for the com- 
pletion of the shank. These moulds correspond also to the 




Fig. 114. — Anvil for making screws, a, mould for forming shank; h, cutter; c, mould for 
making sharp-headed screws ; d, plate carrying set screws, g, and held in position by the 
two screws, e, e; f, die carrying the moulds, a, a. This can be set at any distance from 
the plate, d, by moving the set screws, (j. The length of the shank is thus fixed ; ft, 
forging hammer. 



forging hammer {h), which is slid into the grooves {n) and 
comes down on the piece of square steel : as soon as the 
hammer {h) and the mould {a) come in contact, the shank is 
of the proper thickness. Although the steel is drawn out by 
working in the right mould, it is still too large for the left, 
into which it is next inserted, and in which it is finished. 
The difference in the diameter of the two moulds determines 
the amount of elongation which the shank undergoes in the 
process. In making blanks or blunt screws, the height of 
the screw is next marked, the stop (/) placed in position, the 
heated bar passed first into the mould {a) and then into the 
mould on the left, and forged until the forging hammer and 
mould come in contact. It is then cut off, roughly finished. 

In making chisel-headed screws (fig. 115) the mould (c) is 
first used, and the same process gone through to form the shank 



160 



WINTEK SHOEING. 



'I'zi 



-->, 



as given above. Before cutting the thread, which is performed 

with the machine shown in fig. 116, the screws are heated with 

charcoal and the end of the 
shank filed off square. The 
screw is then grasped between 
the claws {a) and the slide-rest 
(b) advanced until the shank 
engages the die {c, d) and the 
latter begins to cut ; the gradu- 
ating screw (e) serves to fix the 
position of the two portions of 
the die, so that the shanks of 
the screws may be of equal 
thickness. The thickness of the 
shank is about J an inch, the 

thread is on Whitworth's scale, for saddle horses a trifle smaller, 

say, -j^ of an inch. 

In England and Denmark screws with a concavity on either 




Fig. 115. — Screws (full size) provided 
with Whitworth thread. 




Fig. 116.— Screw-cutting machine. «, claws for grasping screw ; &, slides for adjusting the 
cutting parts of die, c and d ; e, set screw for determining the thickness of the finished 
shank. 



face are also used (fig. 117). In the German army screws are 
largely employed. The shank is about ^ an inch thick and 
about |- inch long, the screw being formed of square 
steel bar a trifle more than i an inch on either 
face. The process is as follows : — A mould, speci- 
ally designed for field use (fig. 119), is carried. The 
steel bar is first raised to a white heat and the 
chisel edge roughly sharpened on the beak or horn 

FlG.117.— Frost -1 1 

screw with con- 01 the auvil by mcaus of the hand-hammer. The 

C3»vc sides. 

steel rod is then laid in the hollow part of the 
mould, so that the chisel head rests against the front. With 
the help of the forging hammer, and by continually turning the 




MANUFACTURE OF FROST SCREWS. 



161 




I'IG. 118.— Frost screws used bj^ the 
German army. Measurements 
in mm. 



rod, the shank is formed, the hammer being used at first vigor- 
ously and afterwards more Hghtly. The chisel head of the 
screw, which has become somewhat turned up by striking 
against the front of the mould, 
is then once more sharpened, 
and the partially finished screw 
cut off' with the hand-chisel on 
the front of the anvil. In mak- 
ing blunt screws a piece of the 
bar, about i an inch in length, is 
left projecting beyond the mould. 
The end of the shank is rounded 
off and the thread cut upon it 
by means of a screw-cutting 
machine, which is dropped into 
the cross channel. A practised 
smith is said to be able with this mould to produce about 100 
screws per hour. In form- 
ing the thread only one 
screw-cutting machine is 
required, as, of course, it 
will take any ordinary size 
of screw. 

The advantages of well- 
manufactured screwed shoes 
are so many that this 
method deserves preference 
over any other. The ob- 
jections that screws are lost, 
broken, etc., can usually be 
referred to carelessness in 
manufacture and the use of 
bad materials. The use of 
screws is one of the best 
methods of roughing. A 
set of sharp and blunt 
screws and a small key 
should be supplied with 
each set of shoes. 

The screws shown herewith are those most commonly used 

L 




Fig. 119. 



-Mould for making screws, 
pattern for field use. 



Arniv 



162 



WINTER SHOEING. 



in England. The wedge shape (fig. 120) is the most popular, 
as it gives a good foothold and at the same time wears well : 




Fig. 121 



Fig. 122. 



Fig. 123. 



Fig. 124. 



the modified wedge with concave faces (fig. 121), though per- 
haps o-iving a rather better hold, is not so durable, while the 
diamond-pointed screw (fig. 123) soon loses its sharp- 
ness, wears rapidly, and has the grave drawback when 
new of inflicting dangerous wounds on the coronet 
should the horse cross his legs or slip. For these 
reasons it is now little used. The square-headed screw 
(fio-. 124) is called a ' blank,' and is used for preserving 
the holes during ordinary work. It also gives a certain 
amount of foothold, and is sometimes used even during 
FiG^^— frosty weather. The screw tap shown is preferable to 
, Taper tap. ^^^ ordinary form, as the increased size of the head 
gives greater leverage in screwing, and renders the tap less 
liable to break at this point. Fig. 126 shows a plug tap for 

clearing the screw holes before in- 




serting 



the 



screw, combining with 



the tap a ' picker,' useful for clear- 
ing the holes and removing hard 
masses of snow, etc., from the foot. 

Modified forms of Screws. — The 
fact that in large towns, where snow 
is removed from the streets and the 
screws come in direct contact with 
hard pavement, all chisel or pyra- 
midal screws soon become blunt, renders shoeing both more 
costly and more troublesome. Attempts have therefore been 
made to produce screws which remain permanently sharp and 
prevent slipping even after long wear on hard ground. Such, 
certainly, have advantages. 



Fig. 126. 



^1 



SPECIAL FORMS OF FEOST SCREWS. 



163 



Amongst them we may cite, firstly, the screws and cogs with 
an H-formed surface (fig. 127). 2. Screws with a cross-shaped 
bearing surface (fig. 128). 



Screws and cogs with T-formed 






Fig. 127. — Screw with H-shaped head. 



Fig. 128.— Screw with -f -shaped head. 



ground surface. 4. Screws and cogs with S-shaped ground 
surface. 5. Angled screws (fig. 129). 6. Screws and cogs 
with inserted rubber plugs. 7. Screws with radiating Y-shaped 




Fig. 129. Fig. 130. 

Fig. 129.— Screw with angled head. 
Fig. 130.— With Y-shaped head. 




FIG. 131. 

Fig. 131.- 
FIG. 132.- 



FlG. 132. 

-Hollow screw. 
-Perforated screw. 



bearing surface 



(fip-- 



.^. 130). 8. Hollow screws (fig. 131). 
9. Perforated screws (fig. 132). And 10. Spring cogs. 

The durability of these screws and the foothold which they 




Fig. 133. -Universal screw-ke^". 

give depend chiefly on their diameter and the direction of the 
wearing surfaces. So far as experience teaches, those with the 
narrowest and fewest wearing surfaces are least durable, but this 



164 



WINTER SHOEING. 



may be compensated by the use of thoroughly good material. 
The improved foothold is of course a great advantage. ,; 

In inserting and removing screws a key is employed, one of 
the simplest and most effective forms being that shown in fig. 
133, which fits all forms of screws ; the head is hardened. 

4. Cogs. 



Shoes destined to receive cogs differ in no important 
respect from ordinary shoes. To prevent the cogs being 
lost they should be conical in form and exhibit a taper 
of about one in ten, while the holes for their reception must 
correspond exactly in size with the thickness of the centre of 
the shank. 

(a) Eound cogs were invented in 1869 by Judson. The: 
holes to receive coq;s can be made in the heated or unheated 
shoe. In the first case the hole is formed with a round punch 
rather smaller than the shank of the cog and finished, after 
fitting the shoe, by means of a conical slightly oiled steel drift 

tapering from either end 
about one in ten. The 
holes can also be bored and 
countersunk in the cold 
shoe. For this purpose a 
drill (the best form is the 
American twist drill) is 
necessary, the diameter of 
which exactly corresponds 
to the thickness of the 
upper end of the cog (figs. 
134 and 135, c). After the 

FIG. 136.-C6unter-smk for enlarging holes in shoe. ^^^^ -^ g^^^^ ^^ ^^^ j^^j. ^j^^ 

holes are widened by means of the counter-sink shown in 
fig. 136, which is introduced from the ground surface. As the 
shank of the counter-sink corresponds in thickness to that of 
the cog, the latter should then fit firmly. Any little rough- 
ness of the margin of the hole is removed with a file and the 
border once more smoothed oli by introducing the counter-sink. 
The cogs are made of rolled cast steel of round section, and 
may be the same diameter as the hole or about J- inch thicker. 




Fig. 136. 



Fig. 134. -Sharp cog. 

Fig. 135. — Blunt cog. a, head ; b, shank 



FKOST COGS. 



165 



A mould, the holes in which have been made by the counter- 
Sink, is necessary ; the steel rod is slightly warmed and drawn 
until it will enter the mould to within about one-twentieth 
of an inch of the end. A sufficient length is then left pro- 
jecting and the bar so deeply notched that it can easily be 
broken off. This may be done immediately, and the cog 
cooled, a blank resulting ; or if a chisel edge is required, the 
cog is grasped with special tongs having short jaws bored 
but to receive the shank, and the chisel edge is then formed 
with a hammer. 

It is much easier, however, not to give the shank a conical 
form, but merely to produce a chisel edge and to cut off' the 
cylindrical cog thus formed. Diamond-headed cogs are pro- 
duced on an oblique tool, similar to that in fig. 142. h, by using 
a special hammer and turning the bar frequently. 

The cogs (fig. 137) can easily be cut to the same length by 
fixing a stop at the necessary 
distance in front of the cutter. 
They are made on the anvil shown 
in fig. 114, it being only neces- 
sary to have proper moulds and 
a proper hammer. Before nail- 
ing on the shoes the cogs should 
be tried. They are well made 
when the shanks fit tightly all 
round and their ends fill the en- 
tire hole, with the exception of a 
space of 2^ to ^ inch at the upper surface of the shoe. The 
cogs are inserted after shoeing : the first introduced can be fixed 
by means of a light blow ; in inserting the second, however, it 
is necessary to press gently on the first, which might otherwise 
jump out under the shock of hammering. All that is necessary 
to insure their holding is care in manufacture and fixing. 

(b) Quadrangular cogs were suggested by Dominik of BerUn. 
In using cogs of -|- inch thickness in the shank, a hole is 
punched through the heel of the shoe by means of a square, 
moderately conical punch, the end of which measures, say, ^ 
inch ; this hole is enlarged with a drift. The holes should be 
|)unched from the ground surface, care being taken to hold the 
tool at right angles to the surface of the shoe. 




Fig. 137.— Bound sharp cogs, a, for 
draught ; b, for riding horses (uat. 
size). 



166 



WINTER SHOEING. 



The slight burr produced on the upper surface of the shoe 
by the passage of the drift should always be removed with a 
file, and never beaten down with the hammer. The first hole 
is widened by using a drift. In this process the heels of the 
shoe are warmed to a dull red, and the drift driven through at 
right angles to the surface by a few light rapid strokes. 

A simple method of manufacturing cogs was invented by 
a veterinary surgeon named Schleinitz. The blunt cogs are 
made cold, the chisel-edged warm. In forming a blunt cog the 
end of the square rod is hammered on all sides until it will 



a 





I'lG. 138.— a, upper; «', lower end of anvil for forming shank ; h, anvil for forming head. 

enter the mould (fig. 138, a) to within about one-twentieth of 
an inch of the end, when it is cut off with the ordinary cutter. 
Chisel-edged cogs are similarly fitted and sharpened and cut off 
on a special anvil (fig. 138, I). They can then immediately be 
hardened. The thickness of the drift at its widest part corre- 
sponds to the greatest width of the mould. One man can thus 
make cogs without assistance. 

As compared with screws, cogs have certain advantages, 
viz. : — 1. They never break off. 2. Their manufacture and 
use are simpler. 3. Being so cheap, everyone can keep a few 
in stock and affix them without special help. 



MERITS AND DRAWBACKS OF FROST COGS. 167 

Their disadvantages, however, are : — 1. That even with care- 
ful fitting they are sometimes lost. This seldom occurs when 
the cogs are inserted by the farrier ; on the other hand, it is 
favoured by the horse cutting. When the snow ' balls ' in the 
feet, and when horses are going up-hill over hard roads, the 
cogs are very liable to become loose, because they fail to touch 
the ground. 

2. Cogs are difticult to renew on account of becoming fixed 
in position, though this can be prevented by removing them 
immediately the horse returns home. To facilitate removal 
difierent instruments have been invented, most of which, how- 
ever, can only be used when the heels are very long ; but such 
heels are a great disadvantage, especially in riding horses. 
When the horse is worked without cogs the lower margin of the 
hole ' burrs up,' and the insertion of new cogs becomes difficult. 
After the drift has been in use for some time its edges become 
rounded and the cogs no longer fit the holes it produces. 

5. Shoes with Eemovable Toe-grips. 

Koughing by the insertion of one or two ordinary screws in 
the toe of the shoe has long been practised. Provided animals 
thus shod are not used on stone pavements this method 
succeeds ; but in large towns screws of any form soon become 
loose and fall out. As they have afterwards to be removed 
the attendant frequently refrains from screwing them fully 
home : hence under the action .of the severe strains to which 
they are exposed they are soon lost. It is better to employ 
blanks, which can be screwed in firmly at first, for although 
this certainly does not get rid of the strains to which the 
screw is exposed, it greatly diminishes the number of lost 
screws. 

Toe-cogs have stood the test of many years' trial and 
deserve to be more widely employed. The simplest forms are 
the best, and none of those which require any special contriv- 
ance, such as a wedge, a split pin or screw, to prevent loosening, 
can be regarded as practical. The chief point is the shape of 
the shank. This should increase in thickness about 1 in 7 or 
8 ; when less tapered, — for example, 1 in 10 or 1 in 12, — cogs 
at first become too firmly fixed and are difficult of removal, and 



168 



WINTER SHOEING. 



1 



later dilate the holes so that the crown of the cog conies in 
contact with the shoe ; the cog then becomes loose and eventu- 
ally lost. It is of little importance whether in transverse section 
the shank is elongated, rectangular, or oval, though it is very 
necessary that the measurement from side to side should greatly 
exceed that from before to behind. 

The breadth, thickness, and length of the shank may vary 
within considerable limits, according to the weight of the horse 
and its work. In heavy horses, to which toe-cogs are most 
applicable, the shank may be f to |- inch broad, f inch in 

thickness, and -| inch in length ; for 
lighter horses y'^ inch in breadth by -| 
inch in thickness and ^ inch in length, 
thickness, and breadth measured close 
below the head. 

(a) Toe-grips with elongated rectan- 
gular shanks (fig. 139). These are 
manufactured of steel, about ^ inch- in 
breadth and ^ inch thick. The shank 
is first forged, the head then formed on 
an anvil with an oblique face and so far 
cut through as only to require breaking 
off, warming to a white heat and placing 
in a mould of the necessary shape, in which a few light blows 
of the hammer suffice to perfect the form. 

To change these grips a thin double-jawed lever with wedge- 
shaped head (see fig. 102) is driven between the shoe and grip, 
which is then loosened by a few blows on the shoe. 

Shoes intended to carry these toe-grips must be somewhat 
thicker than usual at the toe. Heavy shoes should be from 
|- inch to I inch and light shoes from i inch to -| inch thick. 
This prevents dilatation and loosening. The dilatation of the 
opening for the toe-grip is peculiar and does not occur when 
cogs are used. It is produced by the enormous pressure to 
which the toe is exposed, especially in hind-feet, for which 
reason toe-grips should be formed of a more conical shape than 
cogs. 

After the clip has been drawn, the hole for the grip is 
punched from the ground towards the hoof surface and the 
burr thus produced on the foot surface filed away, a drift being 




Fig. 139. — Transverse section of 
toe of grip-shoe for draught 
horse. 



TOE-GWPS. 



169 



afterwards driven through the hole to give it its finished form. 
The drift should be a little smaller than the shank of the grip, 
so that when the latter is inserted its head will not come in 
contact with the shoe, but a space, from rj^ to yL. inch, be left 
between it and the shoe, so as to allow of dilatation being 
compensated by the further penetration of the grip. After 
fitting, the hole is once more drifted. 

(h) Toe-grips with oval shanks (figs. 140 and 141) are made 
in great variety, with and without safety nails, so that when 





Fig. 14U. — Toe-grip with oval shauk 
and nvit. 



Fig. lil.— Transverse section of shoe, 
grip, and safety nail. 



the aperture for the grip has become somewhat dilated a rather 
larger grip can be used, which will still hold well. 

(c) Toe-grips with rounded conical shanks are made with a 
shank about ^ inch in length and thickness, which diminishes 
towards the smaller end to the extent of J-r to -rV inch. 
Opposite the shank are a couple of ribs about yV inch in 
height and the same in thickness, which prevent the grip 
rotating. The shoes, machine-made, are yV to -^ inch thicker 
around the aperture than at other parts. 

(d) Malleable iron shoes with remov- 
able toe-grips. These have a grip-hole 
at the toe. The grip is held firm by a 
thin piece of flexible iron plate, which is 
bent and inserted, the grip being then 
placed in position and fastened by a few 
blows of the hammer. At the centre, 
near the inner border of the toe of the 
shoe, is a depression to permit of a 
pointed lever being passed under the 
iron plate, which, once removed, allows 
the grip to be readily taken out. Nevertheless, when horses 
are worked on stone roads, these grips are apt to become loose 
(fig. 142). 




Fig. 142. — Patent shoe with mov- 
able toe-grip. The middle tig. 
shows a section of the shoe. 



170 WINTER SHOEING. 

To prevent snow ' balling ' in the feet, specially narrow shoes, 
or shoes with concave ground surfaces, are sometimes used, 
whilst in other cases the entire ground surface of the hoof is 
smeared with fat or soft soap. I^one of these means, however,. 
is perfectly effectual. The only reliable remedy is some form 
of elastic pad. Among the oldest and best known are Hart- 
mann's, then follow pads manufactured of felt, leather, cork,, 
straw, hemp, and gutta-percha. The last named, however, in 
very cold weather become too hard, and then fail to act. 
Sheath er's pneumatic pad is also good. 



SECTIOlS^ II. 
CHAPTER I. 

THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 

The shape of the horse's hoof is so largely influenced by the 
conformation of the limb to which it is attached, that, before 
proceeding to more closely study the former, it will be helpful 
to devote a short space to the limb itself. The variations in 
conformation of the limb largely determine the style of going, 
the form of the hoof, and the distribution of weight. These 
factors deserve our best consideration, for in shoeing sometimes 
one, sometimes another, and sometimes all three become of 
very great importance, and, broadly speaking, neither the trim- 
ming of the feet nor the selection and fitting of the shoe can 
be correctly performed without an intelligent appreciation of 
the conformation of the limb and its action. The necessary 
knowledge cannot be learnt from books. More can be gained 
from the study of large diagrams ; but without much practice 
and steady observation of living horses, both at rest and in 
motion, printed instructions are of little value. The best means 
of all is study under the direction of a competent teacher, who 
will amplify his lectures by demonstrations on the living 
animal. 

1. Conformation of the Limbs. 

The conformation of the limbs depends upon the varying 
lengths of the individual bones, and upon the angles which 
they make one with another. Horses, however, do not always 
move as one might anticipate, and the observer, before coming 
to an opinion, should view the horse both at rest and in motion. 



172 



THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 



(a) The position of the fore-limbs when seen from the 
front is normal (fig. 143), when the limbs vertically support 

the body. A plumb bob let fall from 
the centre of the shoulder joint should 
coincide with the mesial plane of the 
limb or divide the limb into two 
equal parts. The fore-legs should be 
separated to a moderate extent, in 
order that the animal may have a 
fairly large base of support, be sure 
on his feet, and not be likely to strike 
himself in moving. A certain separa- 
tion is also needful to accommodate 
the great pectoral muscles. The 
separation of the limbs should be ap- 
proximately equal in front and behind. 
The base of support then takes the 
form of a parallelogram, and the im- 
pulse of the hind-limb is conveyed in 
a direction parallel to the direction of 
movement of the whole body, a con- 
dition which makes for stability and 
allows all the power developed by the 
hind-limbs to be utilised in forward 
movement. In simple language, when the hind-limbs are not 
in line with the front they tend to push the body more or less 
to one side instead of straight forward. 

When the toes are turned out (fig. 144) the plumb bob will 
fall towards the inner side ; the chest is narrow, the limbs run 
obliquely downwards and outwards, and the body-weight falls 
more on the inner halves of the feet. Animals with this con- 
formation are usually surefooted, but as the limb is not moved 
straight forwards but in the arc of a circle they are more 
readily tired than those of normal formation, the inside of the 
limb is surcharged with weight, and the pace is relatively 
slow. 

Again, in tlie calf-kneed condition, where the knees are too 
close, the feet too far apart (fig. 145), we have perhaps the 
maximum of undesirable factors. In this conformation either 
the foot or the entire limb may be turned outwards. 




Fig. 143.— IS^orraal position of 
fore-limbs. 



CONFORMATION OF FORE-LIMB. 



173 



■ Turned-in toes are found in conjunction with a very broad 
chest. The limbs run downwards and inwards ; the pUimb bob 
would then fall outwardly as does the greater part of the 
weight. This defect renders the action clumsy, and if the 
animal should stumble makes it very difficult for him to recover. 
A particular form of this abnormality is shown in fig. 146. 
Sometimes the limb is normal as far as the fetlock, below 
which it turns inwards, producing a condition termed ' pigeon- 
toed.' 

The position of the fore-limbs, when viewed from the side, is 
normal when a vertical line let fall from the centre of the 
scapula divides the limb from the elbow to the fetlock joint in 





Fig. 144.— Turned-out 

toes. 



Fig. 145.— Calf-kneed 
formation. 



Fig. 146.— Piseon-toed 
formation. 



halves, and strikes the ground close behind the bulbs of the 
heel. 

Another method of stating the above is to say that, seen 
from the side, the limb should be perpendicular from the region 
of the fore-arm to that of the fetlock. It is evident that, when 
the limbs are thus perpendicular to the ground, they are best 
fitted for supporting the weight of the body, like a column, 
which should always be perpendicularly under the point to be 
supported. 

The axis of the foot, that is, of the os suffraginis, os coron^e, 
and OS pedis, and the toe of the hoof form an angle of about 
45° to 50° with the horizontal plane. From this position there 
are variations both in a forward and backward direction ; the 



174 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 

body-weight in the former case falling more on the anterior, in 
the latter on the posterior half of the hoof. 

Goyau states that, given normal conditions, the resultant of 
the body-weight may be represented as passing through the 
centre of the foot, i.e., through the line formed by the intersec- 
tion of the longitudinal and transverse axes, and that any 
reduction of the weight-bearing surface of the hoof, either in 
front, behind, or on either side, brings the part so reduced 



Fig. 147. — Normal conformation of limbs as viewed from the side. 

nearer the centre of transmission of weight, and hence causes it 
to be unduly loaded, inasmuch as each unit of surface carries 
relatively more weight. 

Pader has studied this subject very carefully by means of 
an ingenious apparatus of his own, and, although we cannot 
describe his experiments at length, we may state his conclusions, 
which are as follows : — 

1. At rest, the centre of transmission of weight falls in 
front of the centre of the sole, about midway between the centre 
of the sole and the point of the frog. 



DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN FORE-LIMB. 



175 



2. The centre of transmission of weight falls further back 
as the pastern is more inclined. 

3. Lifting the opposite limb, and thus throwing increased 
weight on that under observation, causes bending of the fet- 
lock, and displaces the centre of weight backwards. 

4. The centre of weight never falls further forward than the 
point of the frog nor further back than the posterior third of 
the total length of the foot. 

By the conformation shown in fig. 148 the base of support is 
certainly increased in front, though this is more often an ap- 
parent than a real gain, because the animal then usually stands 
with his hind-legs somewhat advanced. The strain of support- 






FlG. 148. 



Fig. 149. 



Fig. 150, 



ing the body falls more on the tendons than on the bones, and 
the weight more on the heel of the foot than on the toe. The 
centre of gravity of the trunk is displaced backwards and the 
loins and hocks are exposed to excessive stress. 

On account of the fore-limbs being already so far in advance 
the stride is short and the pace comparatively slow. This con- 
formation is often acquired as a result of disease. 

Backward incurvation of the knee (fig. 149) is a fault, inas- 
much as the knee itself is badly developed and the bending 
stress caused by the body-weight falls on the ligaments, etc., 
at the back of the joint. Flexion of the knee joint, moreover, is 



176 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 



not at once followed by lifting of the knee, as the limb has 
first to become perpendicular and then move slightly forward 
before its total length is diminished. Horses with this forma- 
tion are liable to trip and have difficulty in recovering them- 
selves. Fig. 150 shows a limb, otherwise normal, but with 
excessively oblique pasterns. 





Fig. 151. — Upright pastern and limb. 



Fig. 152. — Bowing ovei- at knees. 



Horses with very upright or forwardly inclined limbs, i.e., 
horses which ' stand over' in front (fig. 151) and whose shoulders 
are ' loaded,' are insecure on their feet, firstly, because this posi- 
tion entails shortening of the base of support, and secondly, 
because when they slip there is difficulty in advancing the leg 
sufficiently to prevent the body coming to the ground. The 
fore-limbs carry more than their fair share of weight, they 
cannot be sufficiently advanced at fast paces, the toe is apt to 
catch in the ground and the animal to fall, the fore shoes may 
be trodden off and the horse is prone to forge. 

Such conformation entails fatigue and wear of the limbs, 
and predisposes to knuckling at the fetlock, especially in hacks 
where the body-weight is supplemented by that of the rider. 

Fig. 152 is a more advanced stage of the condition shown 
in fig. 151. This attitude appears to be assumed by the 
horse in order to relieve the overcharged tendons of weight, 
though it may also be due to contraction of the tendons or to. 



CONFOKMATION OF HIND-LIMB. 



177 



disease of the feet. It is usually seen in horses in which the 
pasterns are fairly long and oblique, and where ' knuckling at 
the fetlock ' is not to be expected. Where the pastern is short 
and upright, on the other hand, knuckling at the fetlock is the 
commoner condition. 

(&) The hind-limbs are normal (fig. 153) when a vertical line 
let fall from the point of the ischium divides the limb (seen 
from behind) into two equal parts. When viewed from the 
side, however, the line should touch the os calcis and fall a 




Fig. 153.— Normal position 
of limbs. 



Fig. 154.— Hocks 
turned In. 



Fig. 155.— Hocks 
turned out. 



short distance behind the bulbs of the heel. A vertical 
hne let fall from the middle of the hip joint should meet the 
outer quarter of the hoof. The hind like the fore limbs may 
be bent outwards or inwards. The hocks may be turned either 
in (fig. 154) or out (fig. 155) or excessively curved (fig. 156), 
the lower portion of the limb beiDg then too oblique ; or, lastly, 
the limb may be placed too far back (fig. 157). This confor- 
mation, though at first almost advantageous and conducing to 
speed, is associated after much work with partial luxation of 

M 



178 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 

the fetlock joint and more or less pronounced spasmodic jerk- 
ing of the fetlock (knuckling over) in certain phases of move- 
ment. It is quite possible for each of the two fore or two 




Fig. 156.— Excessively curved hocks. 
Limbs too far under the body. 




Fig. 157.— Entire hind-limb placed 
too far back. 



hind limbs to take different directions. It is commonest for 
one pair, for instance the front, to be turned out, the other 
pair, the hind, to be turned in, or vice mrsa. Other slight 
differences occur, but are not of great importance to the farrier. 



2. General Conformation of the Feet, when viewed 
FROM IN Front, Behind, and the Side. 

In a state of nature the hoof always corresponds, and is 
suited, to the formation of the limb to which it belongs, but 
immediately a shoe is applied, the horn ceases to wear, and 
instead of the formation of the limb determining that of the 
hoof, exactly the opposite may occur. This can be demonstrated 
experimentally. Given an animal of normal conformation, a 
perpendicular line is traced on the leg from the knee to the 
earth. If, now, the inside of the hoof be much lowered, the 
erstwhile straight line will be seen to form an angle outwards 
at the coronet, while if the outer quarter be cut away, precisely 
the opposite occurs. At the same time, the limbs will be seen 



CONFOKMATION OF FOOT. 



179 



in the tirst case to recede slightly from one another, causing the 
animal to go ' wide/ in the second case to approach, causing 
the animal to go ' close.' This confirms Moorcroft's experi- 
ments on animals which cut or brush. 

But it cannot be too strongly insisted on that the loiuering 
of one side of the lioof can have little effect on the general 
direction of the limb, because, owing to all the lower joints being 
ginglymoid or hinge-like, movement is confined almost entirely 
to the backward or forward directions. For this reason lower- 





FlG. 158. Fig. 159. 

Fiu. 158.— Pair of uormal feet seen from in front ; and 159, from behind. 




Fig. 160. 
Figs. 160 and 161. 



Fig. 161. 
-Form of feet where toes are turned out^vards. 



ing the inner or outer side of the hoof only produces a very 
slight alteration in the distance between the fetlocks. 

However diverse the variations in conformation of the limb, 
the changes they produce in the form of the hoof are all in- 
cluded under one of the three forms now to be described. By 
bearing in mind the principles enunciated, the form to be given 
to the hoof and the choice of the shoe will be greatly assisted. 

Seen respectively from in front and behind, the form of the 
foot will be either normal (figs. 158 and 159), or that peculiar 



180 



THE FOOT IN ITS KELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 



to turned-out or turned-in feet (figs. 160 and 161, 162 and 
163). 

The imaginary straight line drawn through the os suffraginis, 
OS coronse, and os pedis, which we term the foot axis (see figs. 




Fig. 162. Fig. 163. 

Figs. 162 and 168.— Fonn of feet where toes are turned inward. 




JFlG. 164. — a, foot of normal limb, and b, foot of abnormal limb, in which, by irregular 
trimming, the 'foot axis' has been distorted. The dotted lines show the proper rela- 
tions of the hoofs to their respective limbs. 




Fig. 165.— Abnormally flat 
(oblique) hoof. 



158, 162, 165 to 167), indicates whether the hoof and fetlock 
are or are not normally related. 

In the normal position (fig. 158) this line runs directly for- 



THE FOOT AXIS. 181 

wards and downwards, in the out-turned toe position obliquely 
outwards, and in the in-turned toe (fig. 162) obliquely inwards. 

Viewing the foot from the side we distinguish a normal 
position of the foot axis (fig. 166), and may term all variations 
from this in a forward direction as oblique (fig. 165) and all 
variations in a backward direction as upright (fig. 167). 

Speaking generally, the foot axis, shown in figs. 165 and 
167 as a dotted line, should follow a straight course in each of 
the four feet, provided the limbs are all bearing weight. Any 
deviation from this straight line, as shown in fig. 168, is 
abnormal. During rest, the wall of the toe and the foot axis 
should be almost or quite parallel with each other. It is 
allowable in shoeing to leave the toe of the foot a trifie more 
upright than the general axis of the pastern. 

The direction of the foot axis is of great importance in the 
practice of shoeing. The oblique foot (fig. 165) forms an angle 
of less than 45° with the ground, and, compared with the two 
other forms, its hoof has a long toe and low heels. In the 
normal position (fig. 166) the angle is about 45° to 55°, the 
toe being shorter and the heels higher than in the oblique foot. 

Theorists have described the correct angle of the hoof and 
pastern as 45°, claiming that it ensures equal distribution of the 
w^eight of the body between the column of bones and the 
tendons, but animals so formed are not considered well shaped 
by the best judges ; the pastern is too sloping. 

It is clear that, as there is no danger of injury to the bones 
from shock when the animal is at rest, it would be advantage- 
ous could these support a greater proportion of weight than the 
tendons and suspensory ligament, which would be correspond- 
ingly relieved. On the other hand, when, during movement, 
the limb comes violently in contact with the ground, the major 
part of the weight should fall on the tendons, etc., and thus 
shield from injury the bones, which must otherwise certainly be 
fractured. 

General opinion seems to regard the best angle as somewiiat 
less than 50° for front feet and as 50° or somewhat more for 
hind. The greater length and obliquity of the pastern in fore- 
limbs compensates for the greater weight and the more violent 
shocks experienced ; length and obliquity being factors emin- 
ently favourable to neutralising concussion. 



182 



THE FOOT IN ITS EELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 



When the angle is above 55° (fig. 167) the height of the 
heels naturally increases in the same proportion as the length 
of the toe diminishes. The same conditions rule in hind-feet, 




Fig. 168. — Two feet viewed from the side, a, with 
foot axis distorted in a backward direction ; 
h, in a forward direction. The arrows indicate 
tlie proper position of the fetlock, which is 
given in dotted outline. In a the toe and in h 
the heels reqiiire shortening. 



Fig. 169. — Peculiar distor- 
tion, in which the os pedis 
becomes upright, while the 
suffraginis is much in- 
clined. 



with the exception, however, that the angle formed with the 
earth is here somewhat greater. 

A peculiar position of this kind is shown in fig. 169, in 
which the foot axis is bent, the os pedis being much more 
upright than the suffraginis, the hoof following the direction 
of the OS pedis. 



3. The Method of advancing the Hoof 

varies even when the animal is moving on level ground 
and not drawing a load. In the normal form of the limb the 
hoof is moved almost straight forwards (fig. 170). The toe 
points in a forward direction and the hoof is set down flat. 
But the converse is by no means true, i.e., the foot may be 
perfectly shaped, the proportions of its various parts absolutely 
normal, but the formation of the limb, and therefore the style 
of going, quite defective. Defects of conformation in the limb, 
though little marked when at rest, often appreciably affect the 
style of moving. In horses of normal formation the limbs 
are flexed and advanced in a direction parallel to that of move- 
ment or of the longitudinal axis of the body. 

When the horse is viewed from behind the hind-limb 
' covers ' the front, when from in front the fore-limb ' covers ' 
the hind ; at a trot the right and left fore and hind limbs 



METHOD OF ADVANCING THE HOOF. 



183 



respectively are separated to a sufficient distance, and are 
moved in perfect time ; the limbs are neither lifted too much 
nor too little, so that while there is no loss of time there is 
also no danger of catching the toe and falling. 

The method of carrying the limb is not affected by the form 
given to the hoof, though disproportion in any part of the latter 
has a marked effect on the pace. For instance, as the limb 



1 

CD 



(!) 



(5 



(!) 



Q' 








£) 



Q 



Q 



Q 



"Q 



^ 



Fig. 170. 



FiCt. 171. 




Q 



Q 



Fig. 172. 



swings in the arc of a circle around the toe, as around a fixed 
point, prior to leaving the ground, the longer the toe is left, 
the longer does this swinging continue ; hence loss of time in 
raising and advancing the limb. Low heels and a long toe are 
therefore obstacles to speed. 

When the toes turn out, the hoof is moved forwards, in- 



184 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 

wards, and again outwards (fig. 171) in a circular direction, 
the outer wall of the toe coming first in contact with the 
ground and sustaining the greatest part of the impact. The 
toe here points either directly forwards or outwards. In 
the in-turned toe form things are reversed, the hoof being 
carried forwards, outwards, and again inwards (fig. 172). 
The manner in which the hoofs are moved is shown semi- 
schematically in figs. 170, 171, and 172. No absolute rule 
can, of course, be laid down and many deviations occur, re- 
sulting partly from peculiarities in direction of individual bones 
and consequent irregularities in movement, from pace, that 
is, whether the horse walk or trot, from the way in which 
the animal's weight is distributed between his fore and hind 
limbs, and from the position and amount of the load which the 
horse either draws or carries. The four feet of any one horse 
seldom correspond exactly in direction; one pair may point 
outwards, the other inwards, the hoofs being correspondingly 
advanced. Sometimes a defect in one part of the limb 
counterbalances a defect in another, so that, although close 
attention will enable us to classify the conformation and 
action with which we have to deal, yet judging of gait will 
always be a matter of difficulty for beginners and for the 
unskilled. 

Deviations from normal conformation are always a draw- 
back to the performance of work. When strongly pronounced, 
and especially when two or more defects occur in one limb, 
they greatly predispose to striking, cutting, and to disease of 
joints and of the foot. 

The course followed by the hoof when viewed from one side 
(figs. 173, 174, and 175) is of less importance to the farrier. 
In normally formed limbs it is regular (fig. 173). When the 
fetlock is very oblique, however, the hoof at first traces a 
sharp curve, which soon becomes more flattened and is pro- 
longed forwards before meeting the earth (fig. 174). In the 
case of upright fetlocks the lifting and advancing of the hoof is 
performed in precisely reversed order. The shock to the foot 
and limb is evidently least in the style of movement shown by 
fig. 174 and greatest in that shown by fig. 175. As every 
rider knows, the pace in the former case is easy, in the latter 
rough and unpleasant. 



ACTION OF THE LIMBS. 



185 



From the foregoing may be deduced two principles for the 
practice of shoeing, viz. : — (1) The normal form of the hoof 
should be preserved or restored, hut ivith due regard to the 
conforraation of the limhs and to the animal's action. (2) The 
functions of the various parts of the foot must be aroused to 
full activity. 

In regard to the first, the normal form of the foot is under- 
stood to be that which would result were the animal unshod 




Fig. 173. 




Fig. 174. 




Fig. 175. 

and in a state of nature. It need scarcely be said that, given 
this normal form, the balance of the limb must not be dis- 
turbed by inequalities of thickness in different parts of the 
shoe, but that the hoof surface of the shoe must lie in a hori- 
zontal plane. 

Respecting the second, it is indispensable that the frog and 
sole come in contact with the ground. One must not forget 
that expansion of the foot depends entirely on the action of the 
plantar cushion, and therefore primarily on frog-pressure. 

4. Form of the Hoof. 



The normal front hoof (fig. 176) shows little difference in 
the direction and thickness of its inner and outer walls. The 
outer is slightly thicker and rather less upright than the inner 



186 



THE FOOT IN ITS EELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 



(compare figs. 158 and 159). In consequence, it describes a 
somewhat larger curve, as is seen on examining the bearing 
and coronary borders. The height of the heel, in comparison 
with that of the quarter and toe, is approximately as 1:2:3 
or as 1^ : 2 : 3. The toe forms an angle of about 45° to 50° 
with the earth (compare with fig. 166), and when viewed 
from the side its direction corresponds with that of the 
suffraginis. 

When the limbs are straddled (as in fig. 144), the hoof (fig. 
177) is always more oblique, because the outer part of the wall 
is naturally somewhat longer and stands more obliquely in 

relation to the ground than 
the inner (compare figs.. 
160 and 161). The outer 
bearing margin of the hoof 
describes a wide curve,, 
the greatest prominence 
■za of which is at the point 
^ where the quarter joins 
the heel ; the inner, on the 
other hand, is straighter, 
consequently the outer 
division of the hoof is 
broader than the inner. 
So long as the hoof is 
healthy, the limbs of the 
frog are equally devel- 
oped. The obliquity of 
the hoof results from the form of the leg, and must be dis- 
tinguished from obliquity produced by disease. 

When the toes alone are turned out (as shown in fig. 145), 
the hoof (fig. 178) differs from the foregoing in that the circum- 
ference of the bearing margin is less curved at the outer border 
of the toe and the inner heel than at the inner portion of the 
toe and the outer heel. In consequence, two deep and two 
shallow curves lie opposite one another. The toe of the hoof 




r-" 



Fig. 176.— formal right fore-foot. 



""" The artist has slightly exaggerated the thickness of the wall at the heel. 
It must not be forgotten, however, that owing to the reflection of the bars, the 
wall at this point is apparently reinforced, and that, as the wall is worn away 
obliquely, it looJ:s thicker than it in reality is. 



rOE.M OF HOOF AS RELATED TO CONFOPvlNIATION. 



18^ 



points outwards, the foot is not brought level to the ground 
but with the outer wall of the toe first. 

When the toes are turned in (as in fig. 146) a somewhat 
similar, but less pronounced, form of hoof is developed. The 
inner wall is less oblique tlian the outer, as is best seen at the 
quarters (figs. 162 and 163). Tlie lower outer margin more 
nearly resembles that of the ordinary hoof, but the wall of 
the inner quarter and heel describes a somewhat greater curve. 
Not infrequently the outer heel wall appears contracted. This 
form of hoof is commonest in horses which bring the foot to 





Fig. 177.— Eight fore-foot (out-turned toe). 



Fig. 178.— Eight fore-foot (in-tunied toe). 



the ground toe first. Front feet are almost invariably round 
at the toe. 

The foregoing remarks as to the influence of limb conforma- 
tion in determining shape of hoof apply in most respects to 
hind as well as to fore feet. The hind-foot (fig. 179) is not 
round, but elongated or oval at the toe. Its greatest width is 
at the commencement of the posterior third. The sole is 
usually more concave and the wall, seen from the side, some- 
what more upright than the corresponding parts of the front 
hoof; the angle which the toe forms with the ground varies 
between 50° and 55". 

At times, moreover, one sees unusually wide or narrow feet, 
the shape of which is not due to the position of the limbs, but 
to inborn peculiarities of the various breeds. 

The ' wide ' hoof (fig. 180) is broad, almost circular ; its 



188 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 



wall obliquely inclined towards the ground, the sole slightly 
concave, and the frog strong and massive. The narrow hoofi 




Fig. 179.— Normal right hind-hoof. 



(fig. 181) is elongated, has upright quarters, a strongly concave 
sole, and comparatively a small frog of fine and tough fibres ; 
in the opposite form the horn fibres are usually much larger 




Fig. 180.— Wide ' spreading ' hoof. 




Fig. 181.— Narrow hoof 



In the wide-spreading hoof there is a tendency to separation oi 
the wall and to flattening or dropping of the sole. 

Figs. 165, 166, and 167 represent respectively the normal, 




PKOPOETIONS OF HOOF. 



189 



the oblique, and the upright foot. A few remarks on the forms 
of hoof belonging to these respectively may here be appropriate. 
In the first place, the wall of the toe should correspond in 
direction with the general axis of the three terminal bones of 
the digit, and just as one speaks of an oblique or upright foot, 
so one might speak of the corresponding forms of hoof. In 
the normal hoof the wall of the toe forms an angle of 45° to 55° 
with the ground (fig. 166). When the angle is less than 45° 
the hoof may be described as oblique (fig. 165). Such a hoof 
has comparatively a long toe and low heels. When, on the 
other hand, the angle is greater than 55°, the hoof is upright 
(fig. 167), possessing a comparatively short toe but high heels. 
In the latter the anterior, in the former the posterior, half of 
the hoof carries the greater weight. The proportion already 
stated approximately as 1 : 2 : 3 or li : 2 : 3, which should exist 
between the height of the wall at the heel, quarter, and toe, 
is naturally disturbed in changes of other parts of the hoof. 
The above is true of hind as well as of fore hoofs, though in 
general the normal hind hoof is about 5° more upright than 
the fore. 

The following summarised account from Lesbre and Peuch 
sets forth, from another standpoint, approximately the same 
views expressed in the foregoing pages. 

The walls of the quarters in fore-feet form an angle of 10' 
to 12° with the vertical ; in hind-feet of 6° to 8°. In fore- 





FlG. 182. 



FIG. 183. 



feet the coronary circumference is about -§- that of the plantar ; 
in hind-feet about y. Viewed from the side, the toe of the 
fore foot forms an angle of nearly 50° with the ground; that 
of the hind an angle of 55°. The heel is nearly parallel with 
the toe, and should be at least half as high. 



190 



THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIIIE LIMB. 



In the fore foot the height of the toe usually equals f the 
length of the sole, and in the hind -^. The length of the sole 
varies little in the fore and hind feet of the same animal, the 
apparent difference depending on the narrower shape of the 
hind- foot. 

Compared with that of the plantar margin, the length of the 
coronary margin in fore-feet is as 9 : 10 ; in hind-feet a little 
more. 

Viewed from below, the foot is almost as broad as long. In 





Fig. 184. 



Fig. 185. 



contour it resembles the segment of an oval. The sole is thick 
and arched. The degree of concavity depends on the size of 
the foot. The frog is strong, firm, and resistant to the pressure 
of the thumb. When the foot is lifted, it should stand higher 





Fig, 186. 



Fig. 1S1 



than the level of the wall, and therefore, during movement, 
should meet the ground before the quarters and heels. 

The bars, which participate in bearing weight, should be 
strong and prominent, and should be on the same level as the 
plantar margin of the wall, at least up to a point opposite the 
middle of the frog. In some feet the weight-bearing surface 
includes the lower surface of the frog, all of the sole, and the 
lower margin of the wall ; in others only those portions of the 
sole bordering on the wall are included in it. 



CHARACTEKISTICS OF THE SOUND HOOF. 191 

Variations in the direction of the foot axis and in the form 
of the hoof naturally alter the distribution of pressure in the 
joints, and when due to faulty shoeing, and especially when 
exaggerated, are of grave importance. Oblique hoofs, particu- 
larly if shod so as to raise the frog from contact with the 
ground, are apt to show contraction of the heels, whereas in 
normal hoofs the change either fails to occur or is long delayed, 
the reason probably being the greater weight thrown on the 
posterior half of the foot. On account of this increased weight 
on the posterior portions of the foot, the bars and frog are 
unable to withstand the tendency of the heels to contract or 
to be thrust inwards, and if the oblique hoof has also weak 
heels it is very soon converted into a contracted hoof, the bars 
growing inwards and corns making their appearance. The 
horse, especially if he have good action, soon becomes useless 
for work on hard roads. This form of lioof, when accompanied 
by out-turned toes and Hat soles, is very troublesome. The 
unequal distribution of weight is the chief evil, a fact which 
explains why, in horses with out-turned toes, corns are more 
frequent in the inner, and in those with in-turned toes in the 
outer heel. 

In horses with out-turned toes, unequal distribution of 
weight is also responsible to a very large extent for the pro- 
duction of sand cracks and separations of the inner wall, and 
in upright hoofs of sand cracks at the toe. 

5. Chaeacteristics of the Sound Hoof. 

The description of the hoof by no means terminates with 
consideration of its form. On the contrary, its characteristics 
vary to such a degree that one might almost venture to say 
of a hundred horses no two could be found with hoofs which 
would exactly correspond. They vary almost as men's faces, 
a fact which explains the differences in size, form, and fitting 
necessary in shoes. One of the first things the farrier has to 
consider is whether the hoof is healthy. It may be said, in 
passing, that healthy hoofs are not so common as is believed. 
The wall of a healthy hoof, when viewed from in front and 
from the side, should run in a straight line from the coronary 
to the bearing margin, so that a straight-edge laid on it in the 



192 THE FOOT IN ITS KELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 

direction of the horn tubes should everywhere be in contact. 
It should neither show longitudinal nor transverse splits. 

The significance of rings depends on their position and course. 
Eings running parallel to the coronet are, as a rule, of little 
importance ; they only indicate irregular nutrition, but those 
which deviate from this course to any great extent, or which 
are more prominent at one part of the wall than at another, 
point to disease. Viewed from the ground surface and from 
behind, the bulbs should appear rounded off, strongly developed, 
and not displaced. The sole should be concave and show no 
cracks in the white line. The frog should be large, its cleft 
narrow, dry, and clean, and its forward prolongations equal in 
size. The lateral furrows, although fairly fine, should not be 
too narrow ; the bars should run in a straight line forwards 
and inwards towards the point of the frog. Any deviation 
towards the heels suggests commencing contraction. The sole 
should show no red colouring in or about the corners of the 
heels. The lateral cartilages should be elastic and equally 
developed. 

Finally, in forming a judgment as to its shape and sound- 
ness, the hoof should never be regarded alone, but in relation 
to the limb. 

6. WeAE OF THE HOOF AND OF THE ShOE. 

In the first part of this work it was stated that the hooi 
grows downwards and forwards at the average rate of ^ t( 
-j^ inch per month. 

Horn is lost either as a result of friction at the bearing 
surface or of shelling out of the sole. Two kinds of movement 
combine to produce this friction ; one the forward movement, 
at the moment when the hoof is brought to the earth, the other 
the rotary movement, when it is everywhere in contact with 
the ground. The rate of loss varies with the weight of the 
animal, the quality of horn, and the roughness and hardness of 
the ground. On modern hard roads wear exceeds growth, and 
finally renders necessary some artificial protection. In fore- 
feet, the foot is brought to the ground more obliquely, and the 
toe usually wears more rapidly than in hind-feet. It is of 
importance to remember that, although the point which first 



WEAR OF THE HOOF. 



193 



reaches the ground may vary in position, the toe is always the 
last to leave it. 

If the farrier in preparing the hoof leaves one point or one 
side of the wall too high, the portion thus left touches the 
ground first until the inequality is removed by increased wear. 
Were the horse under perfectly natural conditions this would 
be of little importance, but as the shoe prevents the natural 
remedy, and as the error is often repeated at each shoeing, any 
injury thus produced is perpetuated. The part left too high 
grows even more rapidly than the rest, causing the wall to 
lose its straight direction and become curved. In the specimen 
shown (fig. 188) the outer wall has for a considerable time been 
left too hi^h. It will be noted 
that the rings lie closest together ; 
on the low side of the hoof. If the 
toe is left unduly long it bends 
outwards ; if the heels are neglected 
they are apt to bend forwards and 
inwards. 

The hoof, moreover, wears even 
when shod, though only at points 
where friction can occur between it 
and the shoe, that is, at the heels. 
This wear is favoured by weak- 
ness of the wall, bad quality of 
horn, heaviness of the body, wet 
weather, faulty shape of the hoof 
and bearing surfaces of the shoe, and by much work on hard 
ground. The process itself is not directly visible, but may be 
detected by making marks on the wall and noting their dis- 
tance above the shoe. At the next shoeing these marks will 
be found to have approached the shoe or, in some cases, even 
to have disappeared. Immobility of the heels, produced, for 
example, by ossification of the lateral cartilages, diminishes or 
entirely prevents this wear. The amount worn away between 
one shoeing and another is certainly not much, but sufficient to 
require attention under special circumstances. The few experi- 
ments that have been made fix the amount thus worn away as 
from to -J- inch per month. The inner heel usually wears 
more quickly than the outer. The form of the friction surface 

N 




Fig. 188.— Overgrown and laterally 
distorted hoof. 



194 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. 

resembles an elongated wedge, the base lying towards the back, 
the point extending forward as far as the heels are capable of 
movement. 

The result of this friction is to reduce the height of the 
heels ; in unilateral friction, to disturb the balance of the foot, 
to loosen the heel nails, and sometimes to produce pressure on 
the inner and posterior portions of the sole. As an indirect 
result we see increased wear of the shoe at the toe or outer 
quarter. 

Wear of the Shoe. — To the practical farrier the wear of 
the shoe affords valuable information. From a theoretical 
standpoint it should be as regular as possible ; when this is the 
case we know that the horse has usually a free gait, that he is 
not suffering pain, and that he treads level, while his shoes 
wear longer and — a great advantage — admit of being made 
lighter. Such regular wear indicates skill in shoeing, though, 
of course, it is impossible of attainment where the limbs or 
joints are already deformed. 

Unequal wear is very common and may be variously caused. 
Thus, the nearer any part of the shoe, such as the toe, the 
inner or outer quarter, or one or other heel, lies to the centre 
of the hoof, all other parts maintaining their proper position, 
the more rapidly it wears ; on the other hand, by so fashioning 
the shoe as to remove any part further from the centre, wear 
is diminished and in proportion to the distance. The same 
occurs when the shoe is badly made or nailed on, when it is 
too wide at one spot or too narrow at another, or when the toe 
is too long or too short. Even the form of the outer border of 
the shoe has some influence, the part lying nearest the centre 
of the hoof bearing a larger proportion of- weight than portions 
further removed. 

The shoe wears unequally when the horse treads unequally. 
An uneven tread may be caused : 1. By faulty trimming, one 
spot being left too high, or (which is the same thing) the 
opposite being unduly lowered. 2. By an unsuitable shoe ; for 
instance, one with toe-grip where no grip is needed, a shoe 
with a narrow toe where the hoof is upright or where thrush 
exists, a shoe too short for an oblique foot, or a shoe too 
narrow and too finely holed in the outer branch for a foot with 
in-turned toe. 3. By well-marked faults in the conformation of 



WEAE OF THE SHOE. 195 

the horse's hmbs ; in this case the entire formation must be 
taken into consideration. 4. By shortening the stride ; this 
always produces severe wear of the toe. The stride is 
shortened and the horse treads on his toe when his progress is 
checked by the curb or by too heavy a load. 

Wear of the shoe may be caused principally as the foot 
either meets the ground or leaves it. In the latter case it is 
always at the toe, in the former it may be at the toe, at one 
or other quarter, or at the heels, or it may be distributed over 
the entire surface of the shoe. Both kinds of w^ar fall on the 
toe when this part has been left too long, when the horse is 
in heavy draught or in fast saddle work, when it is suffering 
from thrush, contraction of the flexor tendons, spavin, or from 
any of those conditions in which the action of the fetlock is 
limited. ^■■ 

The wear produced by bringing the foot to the ground is 
greatest on the outer quarter when this is higher than the 
inner, or when the corresponding part of the shoe is too 
narrow, as w^ell as when the toe is turned out. As, in the 
last case, the wear produced when the toe leaves the ground 
is most marked at the inner side, an expert can sometimes 
diagnose the conformation of the limb from the wear of the 
shoe. In the following pages the wear produced when the 
foot comes in contact with the Q-round will be referred to as 
descent, falling, or extension wear ; that produced as the toe 
leaves the ground as ascent, lifting, or flexion wear. Descent 
or extension wear is very seldom seen on the inner limb of 
the shoe, a fact explained by the way in which the working- 
horse usually treads. 

It is, however, seen at the heels in horses which sufter from 
laminitis or which go on their heels. 

This short resume indicates, that from the wear exhibited 
by the old shoe may be more or less accurately learned the 
conformation and distribution of w^eight in the limb, the proper 
way to pare the hoof, and the position, form, and length to be 
given to the shoe, all of which are of immense importance in 
practical farriery. The old shoe is the model from which the 
new must be formed, not that it should be followed slavishly, 
but used as a guide to possible improvement. To read its 
lessons aright demands keen observation and careful reflection. 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

1. Management and Control of the Horse. 

The horse, as a rule, and especially when well treated, is 
eminently tractable, and if we have frequently to deal with 
animals which resent the manipulation necessary during shoe- 
ing, it is less on account of the horse's vice than of the farrier's 
bad management. The farrier may fairly require that horses 
brought to him should be accustomed to ordinary handling. 
It is scarcely his business to practise horse-breaking, though 
he occasionally finds some restraint absolutely necessary. 
Such means must be used, however, with great discretion, 
unless they are, on the one hand, to degenerate into cruelty, or, 
on the other, to render the subject worse than before. In 
handlino horses we should endeavour to obtain their con- 
fidence, and, therefore, quietness, firmness, a certain amount of 
strength and courage are required, as well as a knowledge of 
horses in general. We should try to discover whether the 
horse is restless from being unused to shoeing, from fear of 
a repetition of previous ill-treatment, from- excess of spirit, 
from the absence of a companion, or from pain in the feet or 
joints. 

The method of handling older horses, or such as are accustomed 
to shoeing, is of less importance. As a rule, when properly 
managed, they lift their feet willingly, and shoeing proceeds 
without difficulty. It is otherwise, however, in young, raw, 
vicious, or timid horses, which require special precautions. 
The following points should be borne in mind : — 
{a) The horse should never be tied up with a fixed knot. 
The best plan is to pass the shank of the halter through a 
ring, and then twist the free end two or three times around the 



CONTROL OF HORSE DURING SHOEING. 197 

fixed part, so that, if the horse ' hangs back,' the halter will 
readily untwist and release him. 

(b) Horses which are known to resist being quietly shod 
should not be fastened up, but be held by a reliable assistant. 

(c) No attempt should be made to hold up the foot con- 
tinuously until the horse has been accustomed to allow the leg 
to be handled, except in the case of ticklish horses, which, as 
they seem to resent firm treatment less than light handling, 
ought to be grasped firmly. 

(d) The foot to be shod must never be suddenly grasped, and 
it is well to accustom the animal first to standing on three legs. 
In lifting the leg it should be noted whether the animal stands 
fairly on the other three. The farrier should avoid any un- 
necessary noise, the work being better performed quietly, 
rapidly, and with as little inconvenience to the animal as 
possible. In young horses the limbs should not be kept raised 
too long ; an interval of rest is desirable. The legs of stiff, old 
horses should not be lifted too high, especially at the beginning 
of shoeing. When the hocks are very stiff, the limb should 
not be drawn forwards, but backwards and upwards, care being 
taken that the animal does not fall. 

Vicious horses are better shod in a winker bridle with strong 
snaffle, by which they can be better controlled. Any attempt 
at vice should be immediately punished, either by jerking the 
bridle or by calling to the animal in loud tones. If this is 
insufficient the horse may be forced to move backwards in soft 
ground, as this form of exercise soon wearies and reduces it to 
subjection. In lifting the hind-feet a broad piece of webbing 
may be fastened to the tail and then passed completely round 
the fetlock from the outside, emerging again at the back. The 
webbing is grasped close to the fetlock, the foot drawn under 
the body and held as above described. This arrangement 
forces the animal to carry a portion of its own weight, while 
it effectually prevents kicking. In first applying the webbing 
it is well to lift the fore-foot of the same side. 

Twitches are undesirable and should not be employed, except 
in carrying out painful operations on the feet. The plan of 
drawing the hind-limb backwards and upwards by means of a 
rope is also bad, and sometimes results in rupture of the flexor 
metatarsi. The ' side-line ' consists of a long rope with a fixed 



198 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

loop which is passed round the animal's neck. The free end is 
passed from without around the fetlock, carried forward, passed 
through the fixed loop and drawn tight, thus lifting the hind- 
foot. It is useful in dealing with heavy animals, but must be 
employed with care, as violent struggling is apt to be followed 
by heavy falls and serious injury. In dealing with a trouble- 
some animal, it is often sufficient to place him against the wall 
in charge of the groom, who is instructed to hold his head high, 
and occupy his attention by patting and speaking to him or by 
gently playing with the bit. 

Some animals, which resist being tied up or even held, will 
stand quietly if left completely at liberty with the reins passed 
over the neck. 

Others, which are troublesome in a watering bridle, at once 
become quiet when the eyes are covered. 

Certain horses can only be shod when along with a stable 
companion. Sensitive animals are often so irritated in summer 
by the attacks of flies that they can only be shod early in the 
morning or late in the evening. 

Finally, some horses, which are quite intractable at the 
farrier's, can be shod without difficulty in the stable. 

Travises or stocks are usually unnecessary, save for shoeing 
very heavy horses. 

In Germany an assistant holds the foot while the shoe is 
fitted to the foot, but this is unnecessary if, as in England, 
animals are accustomed from an early age to the feet being 
lifted. The farrier lays his tools close to the animal's feet. 
In taking off. say, the left fore-shoe, he grasps the hoof at the 
toe with the right hand, allows it to descend slightly, passes 
his left leg around the limb, grips the horse's foot between his 
knees and places his feet a little apart to give him a firm 
foothold. In this position the shoe is taken off, the hoof pre- 
pared and the shoe nailed on. Once the clenches are turned 
down he carries the foot forwards, places it on his thigh, nips 
off the points of the nails, turns over the clenches and finishes 
the work. The hind-foot is not grasped between the knees, 
but laid on the thigh, the cannon bone resting more or less on 
the farrier's hip. The work is finished in a similar way to 
that of the fore-foot, the hoof being brought forward and 
placed on the farrier's knee. When, however, the horse is 



EXAMINATION OF ANIMAL BEFORE SHOEING. 



199 



heavy or troublesome, an assistant is of great service and 
sometimes almost indispensable, while the work can be better 
done as the foot need not be raised so hi^fh. 



2. Determining the Style of Shoeincj. 

In judging of the style of shoeing to adopt, the horse must 
be seen both at rest and in motion, the objects being to form 
a clear idea of the conformation and action of the limb, of the 
form and condition of the hoof, of the way in which the horse 
brings the foot to, and lifts it from, the ground, of the shape 
and length to be given to the shoe, of the number and position 
of the nail holes, and of the wear of the old shoe, in order 





Fig. 189. 



Fig. 190. 



that all the peculiarities thus discovered may be utilised to 
remove or palliate existing defects. 

The horse is led away from the observer in a straight line, 
the hind-limbs being first examined (fig. 189), and on its 
return the fore-limbs (fig. 190). This is continued until the 
examiner makes up his mind whether the horse goes normally 
or not. In the latter case, that is, if the horse goes in 
some irregular way, one of two conditions may exist, that is, 
the deviation may be inwards or outwards. The foot and hoof 



200 



THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. 



of either limb is then examined, special attention being given 
to the direction of the fetlock and of the quarters of the hoof, 
it being borne in mind that the fetlock and hoof should follow 
the same general line, as otherwise the foot axis will be bent. 
At the same time the manner in which the hoof is carried and 
the angle of the fetlock should be noted, both when weight is 
placed upon it and when it is removed. A few paces at the 
trot will show whether the animal is lame or not. The con- 
formation of the limbs and the form of the hoof, together with 
the manner in which it is carried and put down, having been 
ascertained, the horse is examined at rest, and a mental note 
made of the hoof and style of shoeing, as far as can be done 




Fig. 191. 



by viewing the parts from in front and behind. The appear- 
ance of the coronet, the presence of any curvature, of rings or 
fissures in the wall, and, at the same time, any other defects or 
peculiarities, such as one hoof being narrower or more upright 
than another, receive attention. 

The examination of the animal at rest and from the side 
comes next in order. The farrier will note at a glance the 
weight, height, and length of the body, the position and direc- 
tion of the limbs and hoofs, whether the form of the hoof 
corresponds to the direction of the limbs, whether the line of 
the fetlock agrees with that of the toe wall, and whether the 
toe and heel walls run parallel ; at tlie same time the general 



EXAMINATION OF FOOT AND OLD SHOE BEFOEE SHOEING. 201 

formation of the hoof will be remarked. In the event of the 
wall exhibiting rings, their relation to one another and to the 
coronet, whether they cross, etc., should be observed, while 
the length of the shoe must not be overlooked. 

Finally, the feet are lifted and the width of the hoof, the 
condition of the sole, whether little or no horn is being shed 
from it and the frog, the depth of the lateral grooves of the 
frog (which indicates the thickness of the sole), the state of 
the lateral cartilages and bulbs of the heels, and the presence 
of cracks or cavities in the horn of the wall will be seen. The 
form, holing, position, wear, and age of the old shoe nmst be 
borne in mind. It will be seen whether the shoe corresponds 
in form to the hoof, and whether the number and distribution 
of the nail holes and nails appear good. The shoe may com- 
pletely cover the bearing surface of the wall or may project on 
either side and thus give rise to brushing or unequal wear. 
The distribution of wear is of great importance. Unilateral 
wear is often seen conjoined with irregular tread and deformity 
of the wall, especially when this irregular wear has been 
allowed to continue for several shoeings. As a rule, the side 
of the shoe thus excessively worn is too narrow and the 
opposite too wide, or that part of the wall lying above is too 
high, the opposite too low, or the shoe is applied ' across the 
foot.' In all such cases the bearing surface at the point of 
excessive wear is too small. 

The object of the examination should be to give the farrier 
a clear notion of the conformation of the limb, of the gait, of 
the form of the foot and of the hoof. His object should then 
be to obviate such defects and supply such wants as he 
observes. 

3. Eemoval of the Old Shoes. 

In horses with sound hoofs all the shoes can be taken off 
one after the other, but in handling diseased hoofs this should 
be avoided. In removing shoes considerable care is required 
and violence should never be used. If very dirty the hoofs 
can be cleaned with a brush. The doorman feels for the clench 
with the point of his finger, places the buffer against it, and 
with a smart blow of the hammer cuts it without injuring the 



202 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. 

wall. In order to remove the nails singly the shoe must be 
loosened. One can either use pincers with a wide mouth, 
passing below and grasping the entire shoe, in which case the 
pincers are moved like a lever in the direction of the limb of 
the shoe, or the buffer may be driven from behind between 
the shoe and the hoof. The former plan is preferable. Once 
the shoe is loosened the nails can be drawn separately. When 
the shoe has recently been put on, or when the horse is trouble- 
some, another method is sometimes employed. Taking the 
foot on his knee, the doorman cuts the clenches, and, with the 
pointed end of the buffer, drives down each nail separately, 
removing it afterwards in the usual way. This plan is also 
advisable if the feet are very brittle or broken. 

4. Peepaeation of the Hoof foe Shoeing. 

The continuous growth of the horn and absence of wear 
render jDaring of the hoof from time to time necessary. - A 
further reason is the provision of a solid bearing surface for 
the shoe. Trimming must be so carried out that, firstly, the 
wall when viewed from in front and from the sides corresponds 
in direction with the common axis of the bones, and secondly, 
so that at ordinary paces all parts of the bearing surface of the 
wall meet the ground at the same moment, in other words, 
that the hoof is set down flat. 

Varying with the direction and form of the hoof, quality of 
horn and character of the work, the foot requires lowering every 
three or four weeks. If the animal goes for six, eight, or ten 
weeks, not only does the relation of the hoof to the fetlock 
become changed, but the gait loses in freedom and certainty, 
the toe grows too long, an increased strain is thrown on the 
flexor tendons which favours stumbling, the shoes become re- 
latively too short and too narrow, and are overgrown by the 
hoof, while corns may be caused by pressure on the angles of 
the heels. The hoof increases in width, favouring separation 
between the wall and sole, and the animal may strike itself. 
Horses whose hoofs have become too long almost always fall 
lame when much worked, especially on hard roads. In broad, 
flat feet, and to a certain extent in oblique feet, these bad 
results occur more rapidly than in those which are narrow and 







o 
o 



-J 
a; 



CO 

o 

(M 




SECTION OF HOES 



A Wall 

B Horny Lamin/e 

C Groove 

D White Line 

E Inner Surface of Sole 

r Frog 

G Periople 

H Bulb 




OF, 



THE doorman's TOOLS. 203 

upright, for which reason fiat feet require more frequent atten- 
tion than upright, whether the shoes are worn out or not. 
Many owners only send their horses to the farrier when shoes 
become loose, but, as a rule, new shoes are required every three 
to five weeks. 

As we have now to consider the work which more especially 
falls within the domain of the doorman we may perhaps be 
permitted to digress for a moment to give a short description 
of the doorman's tools. A slight deviation has been made from 
the original plan of the book ; hence the tools used by the 
doorman in shoe-making as well as in preparing the foot and 
nailing on the shoe are given here. 

The shoeing hammer is used in conjunction with the buffer 
to cut the clenches, before removing the old shoe, to drive and 
turn down the nails, and, in many cases, to twist off the points. 
The buffer is usually made from a piece of worn-out rasp. 
Some care is required in tempering it so that it may neither be 
so brittle as to break when struck, nor so soft as to soon lose 
its edge. The pincers are also made from worn-out rasps. 
They are used in removing the shoe, drawing down the clenches, 
and cutting off the points of the nails. 

Drawing-knives may be made from old files. Two or three 
sizes are needed, the smaller being used for completing the cut- 
ting out of feet, etc. 

A nail cap is best formed of a heavy block of wood sur- 
rounded by a rim of leather. The base being heavy there is 
less chance of the cap being upset. The most widely used 
rasps are 'Turner's,' 15 inches in length, half file cut and 
reversible. These are cut by hand, but some very useful 
machine-cut rasps of American make are now in the market. 
Toeing-knives are often made from old rasps, though in London 
pieces of disused sword blade are more commonly used, as they 
need no preparation. The toeing-knife is very useful when 
judiciously employed, but in many shops its use is altogether 
prohibited; it being found that the ease with which large 
masses of horn can be removed often tempts hasty or careless 
workmen to use it instead of the drawing-knife, and so to inflict 
serious injury on the foot. 

Of the tools used by doormen in shoe-making the sledge 
hammer is of the pattern shown, with one flat and one convex 



204 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



face. It weighs about 9 lbs. The fire- tongs are for holding 
the old shoes which are being worked up as ' heats,' in the 
fire. When the heat is ready for welding it is grasped with 
the fireman's tongs and transferred to the anvil. Fire-tongs 
are often used for beating down the wet coals while forming a 
' back.' 

The ' clamp ' is intended to hold a concave or fullered hunt- 
ing shoe when being filed out. The shoe is grasped by the jaws 
of the clamp and the latter inserted in the vice. The jaws are 

curved so that the shoe is brought into 
a more convenient position for the work- 
man than if it were inserted directly in 
the vice. 

In preparing the hoof a good rasp 
and a farrier's drawing-knife are quite 
sufficient. Here and there in France 
the Arabian form of knife shown in 
fig. 192 is still employed. 

After glancing at the limbs, etc., and 
judging of the relative strength of the 
hoof to the weight of the animal's body, 
the hoof is trimmed and any stubs care- 
fully removed. The information already 
gleaned must be kept in mind when 
judging whence and how much horn is 
to be taken away from the sole and 
wall. 

It is not altogether superfluous to ask 
whether horn must be taken away, be- 
cause cases occur where the hoof is 
so weak that, if it were possible, we 
should be justified in adding rather than removing. A faulty 
shoe can immediately be replaced by a better, but once horn 
is removed it can only be replaced by a very slow process of 
growth. 

In any case loose portions of horn should be removed, after 
which the white line is examined, and its condition and relation 
to the circumference of the wall, which indicate the thickness 
of the wall itself, noted. 

It is clear, of course, that only the wall should be lowered 




Fig. 192. 



I 



PREPARATION OF HOOF FOR SHOEING. 



205 



the sole should be freed of loose portions of horu but 
nothing more. This done, the bearing surface of the wall is 
lowered until a narrow strip, the width of a straw, on the 
outer border of the sole, and in contact all round with the 
white line, forms part of the new bearing surface. This 





Fig. 193.— Section through normal hoof, 
showing strength of connection be- 
tween wall and sole. 



Pig. 194. — Section through hoof 
with thin sole, showing con- 
nection between wall and sole. 



avoids weakening the connection between the wall and sole 
(figs. 193, 194, 195, and 196). 

When the sole shows no large cracks, and its outer circum- 
ference forms a continuous surface with that of the wall, noth- 
ing should, as a rule, be removed. At most the wall is to be 
levelled with the rasp, and the bars, if curling inwards, slightly 
reduced. All portions of the wall lower than the margin of 




Pig 195 —Section through normal foot, a, os pedis ; h, sensitive sole ; c, horn sole ; d, bear- 
ing margin of wall ; e, boundary between growing horn and that ready to be cast, indi- 
cating how far the sole should be pared. 

the sole can be removed ; if no part projects below this point 
nothing should be removed. The bearing surface then con- 
sists of the thickness of the wall, including the white line, and 
a narrow strip of the outer margin of the sole. This should be 
completely levelled with the rasp and only rounded off slightly 
at the toe. 

In case of doubt as to how much to remove, the horn of the 



206 



THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. 



sole can be tried with the knife at a spot close to the apex of 
the frog. Dull colour and small cracks of the horn, together 

with deep lateral grooves at the 
sides of the frog, indicate a thick 
sole. Loosening and shedding 
of the horn of the sole are due 
to two causes, the first being 
oTowth of the sole. As the sole 
becomes thicker it is exposed to 
strain, because it is unable to 
follow the growing, and hence 
expanding, circumference of the 
wall. Secondly, shedding of horn 
is favoured by alternating mois- 
ture and dryness, by the elas- 
ticity of the sole, and by its 
movement durins; the animal's 
These factors acting to-, 
gether favour shelling of the 
sole, and in flat hoofs operate so effectively that a strong sole is 
rare. In upright feet, however, the sole is usually strong and 
its margins, at least, perfectly capable of supporting weight. 

The bars should be spared and their connection with the 
wall under no circumstances weakened, much less cut through. 




Fig. 196.— Front foot, a, prepared for the paCCS. 
shoe ; &, before preparation. 




Fig. 197.— a, right fore-foot of normal limb; h, of turned-in limb, both showing incorrect 
paring. The correct form is indicated by dotted lines. 



It is best to leave them level with the wall or a very little 
lower, though the extreme posterior parts of the sole should be 
lowered at least yV inch. The point where the wall is incurved 
to form the bars requires particular attention. In sound un- 
shod hoofs the bars run in an almost straight direction, from 



PREPARATION OF HOOF FOR SHOEING. 



207 



a spot somewhat behind the point of the frog, backwards and 
outwards. In shod hoofs, however, they tend to deviate from 
this course, to converge again at the bulbs, and thus to 
encroach on the space normally occupied by the frog. Eemoval 
of the angle of the bars {i.e., the point at which they join the 
wall) should never be allowed. 

The frog is left sufficiently strong to project below the 
bearing surface of the heel, a distance equal to the thickness of 
an ordinary shoe. If weakened, it atrophies, and the hoof 
contracts. It should, therefore, only be pared when diseased ; 
in other cases loose parts alone are to be removed. It need 
scarcely be pointed out that, if 
strong, the frog will soon wear to 
proper proportions. 

The sharp edge of the bearing 
margin of the wall should be rounded 
as shown in fig. 198, but in normal 
hoofs the general surface must only 
be rasped if curved or deformed, as 
sometimes happens on the inner 
aspect. Bounding the edge prevents 
splitting and facilitates fitting the 
shoe. 

The foregoing remarks on trim- 
ming the wall apply, of course, only to the hoofs of normal 
limbs ; other cases require special attention. When the toes 
are turned out, the outer wall, if viewed from the front, is 
longer than the inner and to an extent corresponding with 
the extent of the defect. When the toes, on the contrary, are 
turned in, the inner wall is longer than the outer. Before pro- 
ceeding to trim the hoof, therefore, the position of the feet and 
the direction of the foot axis should be noted. 

Goyau gives the following directions (which have been 
summarised) for the preparation of the hoof. Imitate the 
eftects of natural wear. Natural wear produces a fiat foot of a 
form best suited to the conformation of the limb it terminates. 
It shortens and rounds the toe, lowering it to a greater extent 
than the heels ; removes horn only from the anterior part of 
the sole, leaving the connection between walls and sole of full 
strength ; rounds off the outer ed^e of the wall more than the 




Fig. 198.— Vertical section through 
wall at toe. a-c, absolute; a-b, 
apparent thickness. The curve, 
c-b, indicates the necessary round- 
ins of the toe. 



208 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



inner, and spares the sole, frog, and bars, which shed their 
superfluous growth naturally. Natural wear gives to the foot 
the form best suited to the animal's action, and produces a 
perfectly flat bearing surface from the quarters to the heels. 

Finally, Goyau declares that the equilibrium {aplomb) of the 
limb should result as far as possible from the 'preparation of 
the foot and not from varying the thickness of different regions 
of the shoe. 

Special care should be taken in paring the hoof to bring the 
wall into line with the axis of the foot (fig. 197). 

In dealing with the foot as seen from the side, the question 
resolves itself into one of the relative heights of the toe and 
heels. 

The axis of the foot must be the guide. In normal feet it 
is parallel with the wall of the toe (figs. 165-167). If the 
hoof becomes too long, the intersection of the hoof and foot 





Fig. 199. — Hoof too oblique, 
horn to be removed shown 
by clotted Hue. 



Fig. 200.— The same hoof pro- 
perly prepared. 



axes forms an obtuse angle (fig. 199). This renders it more 
difficult for the load to be moved, and leads to disease of the 
coronet joint through strain on the ligaments connecting the 
suffraginis and coronet bones. Shortening the toe compensates 
for this, and restores the foot to its proper position (fig. 200). 
There is less injury to the joints when the heels are too high 
(fig. 201, &), because the back of the shoe is then worn away. 
By shortening the toe or heel the fetlock and foot axes are 
thus readily brought into line, as shown by fig. 201. 

It has been found that excessive lowering of the heels tends 
to strain of the perforans tendon, while excessive height relieves 



FACTOES DETERMINING POSITION OF GREATEST WEAR. 



209 



the perforans at the expense of the perforatus. Excessive 
length of the toe is therefore more injurious than the opposite 
condition because of the importance of the perforans. 

The bearing of the hoof is normal when all parts of the bear- 
ing surface of the wall or of the shoe meet the ground at the 
same time, and when the toe wall and heel, viewed from the 
side, correspond in direction with the common axis of the 
bones of the foot. 

It must always be a matter for the judgment of the farrier, 
when paring the foot, to what extent he shall adopt the in- 
dications given by the wearing of the heels or of the toe, but 




Fig. 201. — Two feet seea from the side ; in a the toe is too long, in b the heels. 
The dotted lines Indicate the correct relations between hoof and pastern. 



this much seems quite certain, that wearing of the heels 
necessitates shortening of the toes, and marked wearing of any 
part of the shoe generally shows that the portion of the wall 
above that spot needs lowering, or that the shoe is too narrow 
at that point ; but in all doubtful cases a final judgment should 
be deferred until the horse has been seen in motion. 

We say generally, because it must be remembered that wear 
depends not only on conformation but on 'pace and the nature 
of the worh performed. Thus the spavined horse wears most 
at the toe. The stepping horse and the fast trotter wear at 
the heels. The saddle horse wears all parts evenly. The 
draught horse wears the toe excessively. To lower the toe of 
the spavined horse and of the horse with low heels is good 
practice, but to do the same with the heavy draught horse, or to 
lower the heels of the stepping horse, would be a grave error. 

Finally, it should be remembered that in changing from Hat 
shoes to shoes with heels, or mce versa, the hoof must be properly 
prepared so as to preserve the relations between the axes of 





210 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

the foot and of the hoof. As each hoof is prepared for the 
new shoe the latter should be applied and the animal allowed 
to stand on it, the foot being then examined and compared 
with its fellow. Only when the position, etc., of the limb 
appear normal should the shoe be nailed on. The two fore 
and two hind hoofs should, when in like positions, not only be 
of similar size, but should be in proportion to the size and 
weight of the body. 

5. Working without Shoes. 

Working without shoes is only possible when the hoof is 
strong and the ground soft. Only loose fragments of horn 
should be removed from the frog, thus allowing the weight of 
the body to be equally distributed over the entire bearing 
surface of the hoof. The sharp edge of the wall is then 
well-rounded off with a rasp to prevent pieces breaking out — 
flat, oblique hoofs being more rounded off than those whieh 
are upright. With this preparation the hoofs are much im- 
proved by the animal being worked barefoot. From time to 
time they should be examined and any irregularities of form 
corrected. It may be necessary to again round off the wall, 
especially when the feet are very flat, while the heels may 
require lowering, as they do not always wear as rapidly as the 
toe. 

6. General Principles to be Observed in the 
Choice of the Shoe. 

Considerable care is necessary in selecting shoes from stock. 
In the first place the shoe must be suited to the size and 
weight of the horse, to the kind of work, to the surface on 
which the animal is working, and to the form of the hoof. 
Young horses, as a rule, wear their shoes less, and are more 
liable to cut or brush if shod heavily than stiff, old animals, 
and should, therefore, be shod correspondingly lighter, as 
should horses in easy draught and those whose work lies on 
soft ground. Even for paved roads heavy shoes are to be 
avoided, especially when the pace is faster than a walk. 
Sufficient strength should, however, be given to ensure the 
shoe wearing from three to four weeks, and it may be necessary 



GUIDING PKINCIPLES IN CHOICE OF SHOE. 



211 



to secure greater durability by inserting a piece of steel at the 
point of greatest wear. 

In order to allow of frog pressure the shoe must be formed 
as thin as is consistent with durability and with the preserva- 
tion of its form. Excessive weight injures the action and 
exhausts the animal. This, of course, does not apply to the 
training of horses, where heavy shoes are often used to teach 
the animal to lift his feet and thus increase his ' action.' 
When we remember that during fast work the foot is lifted 
about sixty times per minute, the amount of energy wasted 
in ten to twelve hours will be seen to be very great. 

Flat or ' dropped ' soles require more * cover ' than strong 
feet with well-arched soles, but a certain amount must always 
be given. In Paris the cover is usually reduced to a minimum 
' — and with the worst possible results to the feet. As wear 
is rapid in large towns some compromise must be made 
between thickness and cover, because were both given the shoe 




Fig. 202. 



Fig. 203. 



Fig. 204. 



would be too heavy. Very broad shoes increase the risk of 
slipping. 

Special attention must be given to the length of the shoe. 
All shoes become too short after a time, and should, therefore^ 
be selected of sufficient length to completely cover the bearino- 
surface of the wall and in most cases to project a little.* 
The exact excess of length depends both on the form of the 
hoof when viewed laterally and the style of shoe, but as a 
general rule oblique hoofs require longer shoes than upright. 
When the foot is upright and the shoe flat, ^ inch is quite 

* An exception may perhaps be made in favour of hunting shoes, but even 
here the heel is often prolonged, being narrowed and turned upwards, so that 
the point is embedded in the wall of the heel. 



212 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



sufficient, but can be increased to ^ or f inch, in some cases, 
indeed, to 1^ inches, according to the size and weight of 
the horse. Long shoes throw greater weight on the anterior 
half of the hoof ; short ones have an opposite effect. 

In heavy draught horses the heels may be so long as to 
meet a vertical line dropped from the bulbs of the heel, but 
for light horses, working at a trot or gallop, this would be 
quite inadmissible, on account of the danger of shoes being 
trodden on and torn off. 

This question is worthy of careful consideration. When the 
foot is on the ground the length of the heels can have no 
special influence on the direction of the pastern, etc. The foot 
rests on the shoe as it would on the ground. But at the 
moment preceding that of bringing the foot to the ground the 
length of the heels is of great importance. The foot just 




Fig. 205, 



before it touches the earth is not parallel to the general surface, 
but forms a slight angle with it. That is to say, that at the 
moment of putting down the foot the animal raises the toe 
and lowers the heels. Then he slightly draws back the foot, 
and brings it parallel and in contact with the ground. This 
movement can be noted by viewing the horse either from in 
front or from the side. In a horse trotting towards the 
observer the toe is often lifted, just before being set down, 
sufficiently high to allow of the ground surface of the shoe 
being seen. This only applies to fore-feet. 

The foot being lifted at A (fig. 205) passes into the position 



ACTION OF LONG HEELS AND CALKINS. 213 

shown at B by describing a modification of the arc D E. From 
the position B it passes backwards to assume the position C, 
describing the curve E' G'. It is, therefore, clear that if the 
heels of the shoe are longer than the hoof the prolongation will 
describe a curve which will cut the ground surface. In other 
words, at the moment the hoof is brought to the ground the 
heels of the shoe will make contact much earlier than the toe, 
and the foot will come to rest at E' instead of at G. It will 
at once be seen how injurious this is, especially to the heels. 

Calkins are just as harmful as long heels for front feet. 
To those who doubt this, we may commend the practical test 
of applying a pair of front shoes with heels, say, 1 or 1^ inches 
longer than the feet, or with calkins 1^ or 2 inches high. On 
making the horse trot, a peculiar shoulder action will be 
observable and the horse will go as though affected with 
laminitis. The foot seems to be brought to the ground as 
shown in B, fig. 205. 

In hind-feet lengthening the heels is not accompanied by 
these disadvantages, but, within limits, tends to increased 
speed. 

In America a practice prevails of lengthening the heels of 




trotting horses' hind shoes with this object, although the 
rationale of the process is not recognised. The following is 
a possible explanation. 

Before actually coming to the ground the horse's foot 
assumes the position C (fig. 206), with the sole directed more 
or less forwards. During the next instant it describes the arc 
of the circle C D and is firmly planted on the earth. 

If, however, the heels of the shoe are prolonged, although the 
hoof still tends to describe the curve C D (fig. 207), the heel C, 
describing a parallel but larger curve, will touch the earth at 
A'. The increase of the stride will then equal the distance 



214 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

A to A'. Although this may be very little on each occasionj 
it becomes an important quantity when multiplied several! 
hundred times, and quite suffices to convert a losing into al 
winning race. The exertion and risk of strain are naturallyj 
greater, but are of little importance when contrasted with th( 
gain. 

Heavy horses with turned-in toes go best in rather heav^ 
shoes with broad outside quarter, fitted rather ' full ' and with 



D 




A A' 

Fig. 207. 

nail holes punched somewhat coarser than usual. This gives a 
broader bearing surface outside. 

It is scarcely needful to say that, in choosing a shoe, the 
position and direction of the nail holes must be taken into 
account, as well as its form, a point of great importance in 
shoeing defective feet. - 

Viewed from the ground surface a well-made front shoe is* 
seen to be rounded in form, almost as broad as long, the two 
branches of approximately equal length, the inner, however, 
being somewhat less round. 

The cover is almost the same throughout, the toe and 
quarters, which sustain the severest wear, being rather 
broader than the branches; the nail holes are suitable in size -; 
and number to the class of shoe and placed so as not to be I 
injured by drawing the clip ; the two toe-nails are in a line | 
with each other, at equal distances from the centre of the 
toe, and punched somewhat obliquely; the last nail holes 
should be opposite the centre of the shoe (antero-posterior 
measurement); the outer nail holes are punched a little 
' coarse,' the inner at about the same distance from the margin 
of the shoe as those of the toe. All the nail holes should be 
equally spaced, quadrangular, and clean-punched, the counter- 
sinks being sufficiently deep to allow nearly the whole of the 
nail head to enter. 



t 



FORM AND PROPORTIONS OF SHOE. 215 

Viewed from the side the hoof surface is flat, except under 
very special circumstances, as when the toe is 'rolled,' and 
the shoe of the same thickness throughout. The fore shoe 
should only carry calkins when a toe-piece of equal height is 
used. 

Viewed from above, the nail holes of the inner quarter and 
inner toe should be seen to open nearer the margin of the shoe 
than those of the outer quarter. 

A well-made hind shoe should be of oval shape, the branches 
of the same length, the inner, however, being straighter than the 
outer, the toe should exhibit more ' cover ' than the branches, 
the heels should be finished square, the toe should show no nail 
holes, the nail holes of the inner side should be punched finer 
than those of the outer, and the last nail hole of one side should 
be approximately opposite that of the other. The other charac- 
teristics are similar to those of the fore shoe, save that the toe 
(in draught horses) is thicker than the heels. 

Calkins, even when of equal height, entail certain disadvan- 
tages. Thus they lift the frog clear of the ground and place 
it out of action ; entering the ground unequally they tend to 
strain the joints ; in turning or in the stable they are apt to be 
set down on the coronet of the opposite foot and cause danger- 
ous w^ounds. Their power of checking slips rapidly decreases 
with wear. They are quite out of place when used to raise 
naturally low heels, and in no way prevent strain of the tendons 
(as is often supposed), because the tendons themselves are then 
of a length corresponding to the flatness of the foot. Further- 
more, they cause the foot to rest continually on an inclined 
surface. Though employed for all classes, they are most useful 
on the hind shoes of heavy cart horses, where they favour the 
action of the tendons duriuo; draus^ht and ensure a firm foot- 
hold on slippery ground. 

In shoeing horses with turned-in toes the increased wear of 
the outer limb of the shoe is compensated by making the ' web * 
somewhat broader. Upright feet require a shoe with web of 
the same width at quarters and toe, or somewhat broader at 
the toe. 

As the weight of the shoe has considerable influence in 
determining the style of going, animals with little action are 
sometimes shod with a heavy shoe, and in those having a 



216 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



tendency to brush or strike it may be desirable to weight the 
toe or quarter as afterwards referred to. The exact amount to 
apply requires careful judgment. 

In choosing a new shoe the old one is usually the best 
guide. Some farriers use simply a straw on which they 
mark the length and breadth. During the early part of the 
present century a large number of instruments were invented 
for this purpose, with the object not only of showing the length 




Fig. 208.— Ewerloflf's Podometer. 

and breadth, but the exact circumference of the hoof, and one 
form is still regularly used in the French army. Most were 
unpractical ; the only one of any value was that suggested by 
the Swedish othcer, Ewerloff, in 1876 (see fig. 208). It con- 
sists of strong tin and is cut into teeth as shown. In using it 
the instrument is laid on the hoof, the shape of which is marked 
on it with chalk. * Pedometers,' however, are now never used 
in England. 



guiding principles in shoeing hacks. 217 

7. Choice of the Shoe foe Specific Uses. 

We shall now consider the shoes more commonly employed 
in each of the classes mentioned on p. 147. The general 
principles to be observed in shoeing each class (such as hacks, 
hunters, race-horses, etc.) will first be given and will be 
followed by descriptions of specific shoes for the uses indicated. 



1. HACK.^. 

As saddle horses are seldom used for more than a few hours 
per day, they require light, closely fitted shoes, which afford 
sufficient protection to the feet without endangering ' cutting * 
or * overreaching,' and without in any way impeding freedom of 
action. At the same time, it is very bad policy to unduly 




Fig. 209. — Fullered front shoe for hack. As in several of the 
following figures, the foot has been cut out so that bars 
appear unduly prolonged. 

reduce the ' cover ' of the shoe, as is often done in order to 
produce a neat appearance, because a certain quantity of iron is 
necessary to give durability, and as the ' cover ' is reduced the 
thickness of the shoe must be proportionately increased. Carried 
to an extreme, this narrowing of the shoe is a grave evil. 

In preparing the foot, the heels should be left as strong as 
possible, because, under the rider, the pastern descends and the 
major part of the weight is thrown on the back of the foot. 



218 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



1 
I 



leading, in weak heels, to the production of bruises, corns, etc. 
Where the heels are low and spreading, the heels of the shoe 
may be fitted rather fuller than usual and somewhat prolonged. 
The hind shoe should be of equal height inside and out, the 
inner branch fashioned almost straight from the inner edge of 
the toe to the posterior third of the foot and made rather 
narrower than the outer, or a feather-edged shoe may be 
applied. This has the advantage of preventing injury to the 
•coronet of the opposite leg either in work or in the stable. 

The clip should be at the centre of the toe, which should be 
well rounded in front. The heels may project -J to |- inch. 
In general, the shoes of the hack resemble those of the hunter, 
next described, though, as the pace of the hack is slower and 
the efforts he makes less violent than those of the hunter, the 
excessive precautions taken in the case of the latter are im- 
necessary. 



SPECIAL SHOES FOB HACKS. 



FULLEEED FOEE SHOE (Fig. 210). 

Made from ^ inch x -f^ iron. 

This shoe is suitable for animals with small, upright, ' boxy ' 
feet, or for small hunters, cobs, and ponies. It should not 
be used where the feet are fiat or weak. The shoe is made 
' wrong way on,' and thus wider at ground than at foot 
surface, and therefore gives show cobs, etc., the appearance of 
having large well-developed feet, even when this is not the case. 
The inside edge is filed out, and as the 'cover' is narrow, the 
shoe gives the foot an appearance of extra width. Filing out 
the inner edge also lessens the chance of the horse ' forging,' the 
noise of which is often very distinctly heard when the animal 
is trotted on grass. The shoe shown, being intended for a 
defective foot, has eight nail holes, but might be made with six ; 
and if required, the last (quarter nail on the outside might be 
placed further back. To give extra durability, the shoe may 
be made of steel. 



HACKS. 




Fig. 210.— Fullered fore shoe for hack. Alade from h inch x ^^j 



V iron. 



[To face p. 218. 



HACKS. 




Fig. 211. — Fullered seated fore shoe with thick heels. Made of | x | inch iron. 



To face p. 219.] 



SPECIAL FOKE SHOES FOR HACKS. 219 

FULLEEED SEATED EOliE SHOE WITH THICK 
HEELS (Fig. 211). 

Made of ^ X ^ inch iron. 

This shoe is used chiefly for horses suffering from strain 
•of tendons, Hgaments, etc., the tension on which it relieves, 
allowing the animals to work with less pain. In larger 
sizes it is also very useful for cart horses with strain of 
the sub-carpal ligament. Occasionally such a shoe is applied 
to the lower of two carriage liorses which work together, so as 
to bring it more on a level with its fellow ; but this is scarcely 
a legitimate use of the shoe, though sometimes resorted to by 
dealers. The disadvantages of the shoe are that it lifts the heels 
from the ground and thus prevents frog pressure, a condition 
soon followed by atrophy of the frog, thrush, etc. ; that it is 
apt to press unduly on the heels, and, especially in weak feet, 
to cause corns, and that, by throwing increased weight on the 
toe, it favours the production of sand-crack, or aggravates it if 
■existent. 

As a rule, thick heels are contra-indicated in front shoes, 
particularly in shoeing horses with fiat or dropped soles. The 
farrier is often asked to thicken the heels of shoes for horses 
which wear at that point, but the request should not be com- 
plied with. 

In making this shoe, the toe is first thinned and the heels 
afterwards thickened (' upset ') by a few blows delivered in the 
direction of the web of the shoe, whilst the latter is held in the 
vice. It is difficult to ' upset ' the heels on the anvil itself. 



220 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



2. HUNTERS. 



The ground surface of hunting shoes must be formed with 
due regard to the prevention of slipping and the minimising of 
suction in deep ground. This is obtained by dishing out the 
ground surface, the dished portion terminating just in front of 
the heel at a sharp angle. The greatest care should be taken 
to prevent overreaching, and all hunting shoes should be of 
particularly good construction, neitlier too broad nor too heavy. 

The concave shoe herewith illustrated is a very favourite 
hunting shoe. It possesses the advantage of being light, giving 
a good foothold, and, owing to the slope of the heels, which 
may if necessary be slightly embedded in the horn of the wall, 
it presents no projections on which the horse might tread or 




Fig. 212.— Fullered front shoe for hunter. 

which might be caught in heavy ground or when 'landing' 
over a fence. The concave shape causes the shoe to enter the- 
surface of the ground at each stride and is said to facilitate its 
withdrawal. 

For animals with strong walled feet and thick, well-arched 
soles this shoe is probably the most suitable. When, in addi- 
tion, the sole is thin and flat more cover is indispensable, and 
the shoe shown in fig. 212 is to be preferred. A certain 
breadth is indispensable to prevent the shoe ' spreading ' when 
half worn through and so cutting the opposite fetlock or 



GUIDING PKINCIPLES IN SHOEING HUNTERS. 221 

<joronet. Abroad, many hunters are shod with leathers, the sole 
being protected with a thick ' stopping ' of tar and tow, and in 
France the use of a soft copper plate, applied precisely like a 
leather pad, has even been recommended. 




Fig. 213. — Lateral view of concave front shoe for hack or hunter. 

The hind shoe usually has a low calkin outside and is 
* knocked-up ' inside. The inside branch must be fitted very 
closely and its outer wall (i.e., the wall nearest the opposite 
shoe) should slope slightly downwards and inwards. Care 
must be taken to remove any rough edges from either the shoe 
or margin of the hoof, especially if the animal 'goes close.' 




Hg. 214.— Hind shoe for hunter. The toe is rounded and set back 
to prevent overreach. Tlie sole has been pared so as to cause the 
bar to appear as if extending to the point of frog. 

The toe should be square and fitted close ; the clips placed on 
either side of the toe. The heels should be as nearly as pos- 
sible of the same height, though, as the hunter usually travels 
on soft ground, a slight inequality in this respect is less in- 
jurious than in animals working on hard roads. 



222 



THE PPtACTICE OE SHOEING. 



As hunters are very liable to overreach when landing over a 
fence their hind shoes require special care in fitting. The toe 
must be fitted straight, be well rounded both inside and out 
and set back slightly behind the margin of the toe wall. The- 
portion of the shoe which inflicts the wound is usually the 
back, not the front margin of the toe of the shoe. The reason i| 
of horses overreaching is often to be found in the toe of the- 
front foot being left too long and the heels being lowered. 
This renders it more difficult for the muscles of the fore-limb 
to lift the body- weight ; hence the animal does not ' get away ' 
quickly in front and the hind foot overtakes the fore, inflicting 
a wound. The remedy here is to shorten and round the toe of 
the fore-foot and to spare the heels. 



TEMPOEAEY SHOES. 

During manoeuvres or a run with hounds a horse not un- 
frequently casts a shoe, and, to prevent injury and breakage 
of the hoof, some special contrivance becomes necessary. 

To meet such emergencies shoes have been invented which 
can be easily applied and which dispense with the use of nails. 




Fig. 215.— Temporary shoe with leather boot and straps, a, hinge. 



Several have been patented, but the most practical is that 
figured. It consists of a light shoe hinged in the centre and 
provided with a kind of leather boot, which fits over the hoof 
and is fastened by straps. The illustration (fig. 215) shows 
its form and construction very clearly. 



- I^U N T E R S. 




Fig, 216.— Fullered seated fore shoe. Made of | x ^ inch iron. 




Fig. 217. — Concave partially- fullered, ' dub-toed' fore-shoe. Made from 

I X ^ inch iron. 

To face -p. 223.] 



HUNTING SHOES. 223 



SPECIAL SHOES FOIl HUNTERS 



rULLEEED SEATED FOEE SHOE (Fig. 216). 
Made ^/-g- X -J inch iron. 

This shoe is useful for hunters witli fleshy soles, or for 
animals with wide feet and slightly-dropped soles. It should 
not be seated out much on the foot surface. Many animals 
forge in going, but on account of their feet being weak, and on 
account of the difficulty of ' boxing-up ' a concave shoe to any 
great extent at the quarters and heels, they must be shod with 
a fullered shoe, as this can be fitted comparatively ' full ' at the 
heels. To prevent the square toe of the hind striking the 
inside margin of the fore shoe, and thus producing noise or 
tearing off the shoe, this fullered shoe is filed out around the 
inside of the toe and cfiiarters. The more marked the sound, 
the more should the quarters be filed out. The shoe is most 
useful for hunters which are exercised on roads, though on 
account of its giving an - appearance of strength to a really 
weak foot, without at the same time proving heavy, it is often 
used for show purposes. For ordinary work, as on carriage 
horses which require cover, and which forge slightly, this shoe 
might with advantage carry seven instead of five nail holes. 



CONCAVE PAETIALLY-FULLERED 'DUB-TOED' 
FOEE SHOE (Fig. 217). 

Made from 4 X -g- inch iron. 

This shoe is indicated for ' stale ' hunters, broken-kneed 
horses, animals which catch the toe and trip, and in some 
cases for horses with contracted flexor tendons. Before fitting 
the shoe, the toe of the loot must be well-rounded with the 
rasp. 

In making the shoe, about two and a half inches of the toe 
are left solid {i.e., is not fullered). This portion is somewhat 



224 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. 

thinned down, and is rolled round on the beak of the an\dl, the 
outside toe being most curved, as this is the part which gener- 
ally comes first in contact with the ground. It is very 
important that the fullering cease well behind the toe, both to 
give greater strength at this part, and also to prevent any 
interruption of the regular curved form of the toe. Were the 
fullering continued round the shoe, the back wall of the groove 
would present a sharp angle, liable to catch in the ground and 
cause the horse to stumble to an even greater extent than 
occurs with an ordinary shoe. 

If considered necessary, a toe-clip can be drawn, though the 
rolling of the toe usually gives a sufficient hold on the foot. 



CONCAVE FULLERED, FEATHER-EDGED FORE 
SHOE (Fig. 218). 

Made of ^X -^ inch iron in concave tool. 

This is a useful shoe for horses that cut, brush, or strike. 
By chamfering the inside toe and quarter a much greater foot- 
bearing surface can be preserved than was possible in the old- 
fashioned feather-edged shoe. The inside limb and heel of the 
shoe do not then sink into the corresponding portions of the 
foot, and the risk of producing corns, or, in the case of a weak 
foot, splitting away a greater or less amount of the wall is 
avoided. 

The two inside toe-nails being stamped, the inner toe and 
quarter can be fitted finer to the foot and the risk of striking 
lessened. Should the horse brush badly, a single nail hole can 
be stamped at the inside toe, close to the clip. For a horse 
which crosses his legs in going, or is ' tied -in at the elbows,' 
this shoe answers exceedingly well, and may replace the ordi- 
nary feather-edged shoe. 

STAMPED FORE SHOE (Fig. 219). 

Mad.e from Charlier steel -^ inch square. 

This shoe is useful for hunters or hacks with strong, ' boxy ' 
feet. Horses which forge or cut when provided with shoes of 



HUNTEES. 




Fig. 218.— Concave fullered, feather-edged fore shoe. Made of f x ^ inch 

iron in concave tool. 




Fig. 219.- Stamped fore shoe. Made ft-oni Charlier steel 
rV inch square. 

[To face p. 224. 



FORE SHOES FOR HUNTERS. 225 

ordinary cover often cease to do so when shod with this shoe. 
It is useful both for fore and hind feet, and should always be 
kept perfectly flat, as shown. The heels are sloped off obliquely 
to prevent their coming in contact with the elbows when the 
horse lies down, and producing ' capped elbow.' 

Where the horse brushes, the outer margin of the inner 
limb of shoe should be chamfered down before stamping the 
inside toe-nails. This prevents the parts burring over and 
forming a saw-like, cutting edge which might otherwise inflict 
severe injury on the opposite limb. 

Chamfering down, however, causes the heads of the nails to 
overhano; the edoe of the shoe when the latter is nailed on : 
these overhanging portions must therefore be afterwards filed 
or rasped level with the edge. Another point worthy of note 
is that, owing to the difference in hardness, iron nails have a 
tendency to sink when inserted in steel shoes, and so to allow 
the clenches to rise. The constant hammering of the feet on 
the ground drives the nail further and further home, the head 
and neck gradually yielding. 

This shoe is too light, and wears too short a time for work on 
roads ; its use is therefore chiefly confined to animals exercised 
on grass. 




226 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



CONCAVE PAETIALLY-FULLEEED HIND SHOE 

(Fig. 220). 

Made in concave tool from f X |- inch iron or {preferably) 

from old shoes. 

This shoe is intended for a hunter that cuts his fetlock joints 
and, at the same time, overreaches. It is level on the ground- 
surface, is fullered on the outside, and two nails are stamped at 
the inside heel. Clips are drawn at the outside toe and inside 
heel. The inside edge is chamfered down, and hot rasped ofP. 

The shoe must be fitted straight across the toe, which must 
be well set back, and the inside toe fitted very fine. The 
clenches of the heel nails inside must be well drawn down on 
the pincers, and the heads of the nails rasped off level with 
the shoe. 



CONCAVE PAETIALLY-EULLERED HIND SHOE 

(Fig. 221). 

Made of ^ x ^ inch iron in concave tool. 

This shoe has the inside chamfered down, and two nail 
holes stamped at the inside toe. It is useful for horses that 
cut or brush their hind fetlock joints. Having a calkin on 
the outside heel, it gives the horse a good grip of the ground. 
As the calkin enters the ground, the balance of the foot is 
not disturbed to any appreciable extent, and in this case its 
advantages far outweigh its drawbacks. 

The illustration does not show them, but clips can be drawn 
at the toe and outside quarter, or on either side of the toe, as 
is usual among hunters ; the former method is preferable, as it 
prevents the shoe driving back. It is also of great advantage 
when the horse cuts ' between hair and hoof,' as it allows the 
inside toe and quarter {i.e., the parts with which injury is most 
often inflicted) to be fitted very close. In such case a single 
inside nail hole near the toe-clip is preferable to the two 



HUNTERS. 




Fig. 220. — Concave partially-fallered hind shoe. Made in concave tool from 
'^ X h inch iron or (preferably) from old shoes. 




Fig. 221.— Concave partially-fullered hind shoe. Made off x ^ inch iron 

in concave tool. 



[To face p. 22»i 



SPECIAL HIND SHOES FOR HUNTEES. 227 

shown. By keeping the toe solid {i.e., not fullering it) the 
chance of overreaching is lessened, and its results when occur- 
ring are rendered less grave. 

Chamfering, or rasping down the inner limb, is done in 
the vice whilst the shoe is hot. It minimises the risk of this 
part of the shoe striking the opposite limb, and prevents the 
bearing surface of the shoe wearing with a ' burr ' or saw-like 
edge. Like that previously described, the above shoe has a 
great advantage over ordinary feather-edged patterns in that it 
presents a broad bearing surface to the foot, in which it does 
not tend to become embedded. 



228 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



CONCAVE PAETIALLY-FULLEEED HIND SHOE 

(Fig. 222). 

Made in concave tool from £ X |- inch iron or from old shoes. 

This is a useful shoe for a horse that cuts and drives back 
or ' spreads ' his shoes. It is for a narrower foot than that 
preceding and is made by a different workman, as is apparent 
from the shape and fullering. 

The shoe has a toe and quarter clip and a calkin outside. 
When single calkins are not higher than the knocked-up portion 
of the opposite limb of shoe, they do little harm, and for certain 
kinds of country are probably an advantage, inasmuch as they 
minimise the tendency to side-slips. These concave feather- 
edged shoes, with the inside chamfered down, are tooled out to 
the heel on the inside ; the chamfering is done on the anvil 
afterwards. As this draws down the parts {i.e., makes them 
longer), it is necessary, in turning the shoe, to leave more iron 
at the outer than at the inner side, otherwise a portion has to 
be cut off after the inside is finished, thus wasting material. 



CHAELIEK HIND SHOE (Fig. 223). 
Made from Gharlier steel y-g inch square. 

This is a companion shoe to the Charlier fore shoe described 
elsewhere. Being light and level on the ground surface, it is 
useful in cases of cutting, and for a similar reason it often 
checks or prevents forging. Horses which kick much in the 
stable and get their shoes off are often shod in this way, as the 
heels of the shoe can be sloped off, and the chance of their 
catching in boards, etc., minimised. 

Clips may be drawn at the toe, at each side of the toe, at 
the toe and quarter, or toe and inside heel. Owing to the 
light section of iron, some care is needed to prevent the outer 
edge of the shoe bulging when nail holes are being stamped. 



HUNTER S. 




Fig. 222. — Concave partially-fiillered hind shoe, made in concave tool, from 
f X ^ inch iron, or from old shoes. 




Fig. 223.— Charlier hind shoe, made from Charlier steel, 7-1 6th inch square. 

[To face i). 22S. 



GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN SHOEING lUCE-IlORSES. 



229 



3. RACE-HORSES. 

The chief points to be aimed at in shoeing race -horses are 
to secure lightness and a rough ground surface, though light- 
ness must never be pushed to such a point as to endanger 
the breaking or bending of the shoe. These requirements 
are best met by a slender steel shoe with a deep con- 
tinuous fullering round the entire ground surface, dividing- 
it into two sharp borders. To prevent the shoe bending, 
however, the nail holes should be continued somewhat farther 
back than usual, and the racing plate shown, though excellent 
in other respects, would probably be improved by a sixth 
nail hole. Since the introduction of steel (for sections, see 
page 131) it has become possible to produce much lighter shoes 




Fig. 224.— Racing plate. As in several uf these illustrations, the foot has been 
so prepared as to cause the bars to appear with unusual distinctness. 



and even to increase the cover (a sensible advantage) without 
adding weight. The section shown on next page is for iron, and 
is still sometimes used. 

For training, light fullered shoes, about six to eight ounces in 
weight, are used. The hind shoes are fiat. These are exchanged 
on the day preceding the event for racing plates weighing about 
four ounces. The reduction in weight is extremely important 
when one remembers how frequently the limbs are lifted, 
especially as the shoe is placed at the extremity of the limb, 
and is therefore acting on a lever of great lengtli. 



230 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

The plate is fitted short and close, the heels are rounded 
off and prolonged upwards, fitting into a niche formed in 
the wall of the heel, so that the union between the heel of 
the foot and that of the shoe shows an unbroken line, the 
inner margin of the shoe is concave, and the wall of the inner 
branch, looking towards the opposite shoe, rounded off. Plates 
for front feet are occasionally provided 

^iiiiiii!illlll!i,iiiiiiii with a low, strong calkin to prevent side- 

^\ll/ \liF s^^P- ^^ some parts of France it is custom- 

FiG. 225. ary to invert the seating of the hoof surface, 

i.e., to make the inner margin of the hoof 
surface a little higher than the outer, so as to fit close to the 
sole instead of leaving a space, the object being to prevent 
the toe of the hind foot catching in that of the fore, an 
accident which is liable to be followed by a terrible fall. 

The hind shoe is usually furnished with a calkin outside to 
prevent side-slip, and a plain heel within. The toe is rounded 
off and set well back, a portion of horn being allowed to pro- 
ject in front. The clip is placed at the centre of the toe, both 
in front and hind plates. By setting the shoe back in this 
way the danger of overreaching is diminished and its con- 
sequences rendered less grave, while the action of the limb is 
favoured as the tendons are enabled to act at a better angle. 



EACE- HORSES. 




Fig. 226. — Racing plate (fore). Made from i% x § inch iron. 




Fig, 227. — Concave fullered fore shoe for steeplechasing). Made from 

I X f inch iron. 
To face p. 2n.^ 



RACING AND STEEPLECHASING FORE SHOES. 231 

EACING PLATE (FOEE) (Fig. 22G). 
Made from ^\r x |^ inch iron. 

This is an old-fashioned plate, such as was used thirty years 
ago when horses were taken to race-meetings in the ordinary 
light shoes in which they did their work. The shoes were 
taken off and the plates substituted at the stables close to the 
meeting. 

The plate shown is made in a very small concave tool, the 
groove in which is provided with a ridge at the bottom so as to 
form the fuller, as the section of iron is too light to be fullered 
in the ordinary way. A similar device is useful in making 
small pony shoes, say 3 to o^ inches. Pony hind shoes are 
sometimes made in the same tool, but it is preferable to use a 
special tool, without the ridge, for these, as, when the fullering 
is continued around the toe, the front of the shoe presents a 
knife-like edge, capable of inflicting severe injury on the fore 
foot should the animal overreach. 



CONCAVE FULLEKED FOEE SHOE (FOE STEEPLE- 
CHASING) (Fig. 227). 

Made from -f X f inch iron. 

This shoe is useful for steeplechasers or hunters exercised on 
grass or harrowed land, but is too light and wears too quickly 
for animals exercised on macadam roads. It is intended for 
medium-sized feet, viz., from 4f to 5^ inches. The section is 
usually given in a concave tool. Owing to its thinness it per- 
mits the fro^s to come well in contact with the ground, and 
acts as a preventive of thrush, contraction of the foot, and 
wiring in of the heels. It is therefore indicated for upright 
boxy feet with signs of commencing disease. 



232 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



4. TROTTING HORSES. 

In theory, the trotting shoe should be as light as possible, 
but inasmuch as trotting courses differ materially from the 
ordinary race-course, increased durability is necessary. The 




Fig. 228.— steel fore shoe for trotter with toe-weight. Total weight, 15 ounces. 
a, projection on which the weight b is slipped and fastened by screw C. 



best shoe is broad at the toe, the cover diminishing markedly 
towards the heels. The broad toe prevents the hoof sinking 




Fig. 229.— Steel hind shoe for trotter, one- third natural size. Weight, 5 J ounces. 

in sandy or moist soil. The hoof surface is flat, the heels 
rounded and bevelled off ; there is only a slight clip ; the six 



GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN SHOEING TROTTING IIOKSES. 233 

nail holes are sunk in a deep fuller extending completely round 
the shoe ; the last nail holes approach rather closer to the heels 
than in the ordinary shoe. The weight is ahout five to six 
ouDces. 

The hind shoe is narrower than the fore; the heels are 
prolonged as shown, and terminate in small three-cornered 
calkins ; sometimes they project an inch or even more beyond 
the heels and are of unequal length, the outer l3eing the longer. 
This arrangement is believed to make the animal ' grain ground.' 
There are six nail holes and the fullering is broken at the toe. 
The clip, when present, is placed considerably to the inside of 
the centre of the toe, which is carefully rounded. 

In training, the Americans use heavier shoes and affix 




Fig. 230. — Hind hoof shod with weighted shoe, a, hook which slips lietweeu hoof and 
shoe to fasten weight ; b, brass weight ; c, 1)inding screw ; d, eyelets for straps. 

weights to the feet, which, in the front feet, are fastened to 
the toe, in the hind, to the outer side. These are of brass or 
lead, somewhat oval in shape and of hemispherical section, 
weighing from 1^ to 6 ounces. Sometimes they are even used 
in racing. In front shoes they are usually fastened by screws 
to a prolongation rising from the toe (fig. 228). 

In the case of hind-feet the weight is tixed in one of two 
ways, the more common being by means of a strap (fig. 230, c) 
passed round the hoof. In order to assure solid attachment 
of the weight a hook (a) projects below, fitting into an opening 
between the bearing surface of the hoof and the shoe. The 
second method is by means of an angled strip of brass, affixed 
by two screws to the lower outer surface of the wall, which 
has been excavated for it (fig. 231). The ordinary weighted 
.shoes are made broader opposite the point wliere the extra 
•weight is required (figs. 232 and 233). Sucli weights play an 



234 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



important part in training trotters. Their use depends on the 
experience that many animals, even with good action, go better 
in front with a moderately weighty shoe. American trainers 
consider that the toe-weight prevents the animal wasting its 




Fig. 231. — Weights seen from front arid side, a, iron carrier fastened ))y means of 
screw a' to tlie lower border of wall ; b, weight ; c, binding screw. 

strength in upward action, thus driving the toe deeply into- 
the ground, and leads to the limb being further advanced. 
The improvement is stated to be from two to five seconds per 
English mile. Such weights are, however, still more useful 





Fig. 232. — American toe-weighted shoe. 



Fig. 233.— American quarter-weighted shoe.. 



for horses with defective action ; animals, for example, which 
go too close behind usually improve in a surprisingly short 
time when provided with weights on the outer surface of the- 
hoof. 



n 



TROTTERS. 




Fig. 234. — Partially fullered fore shoe (for trotters) 
Made from i x h inch iron. 



To face p. 2-35.] 



FORE SHOE FOK TR(>TTIXi; HOUSE. 235 



PAETIALLY FULLEEED FOEE SHOE (FOE 
TEOTTEES) (Fig. 234). 

Made from |- X |- inch iron. 

This shoe is another form of the trotting shoe before ilkis- 
trated. It is said to cause the horse to increase the length of 

o 

his stride ; but owing to its not being used in this country, the 
authors are unable to offer any opinion as to its efficacy. 

The piece of iron welded to the toe in place of a clip is 
tapped with a thread ; the toe-weight is of bell-metal, and has 
a hole drilled through to allow the insertion of an iron rod for 
screwino; the weight home. 



236 THE PEACTICE OF SHOEING. 



5. CARRIAGE HORSES. 

The carriage horse, being heavier, having larger feet and 
wearing harder than the saddle horse, requires a stouter shoe 
and more cover, especially at the toe of the hind-foot. For 
front feet a very common form of shoe is that shown in fig. 
235. The fuller is deep and extends from heel to heel ; ther 
are from five to seven nail holes, depending on the size of 




Fig. 235.— Fullered front shoe for carriage horse. Ground surface. 

the shoe, the last of which should not be placed behind the 
centre of the outer quarter ; at the toe the cover is ample and 
diminishes progressively towards the heels, which should bevel 
off from above downwards and forwards and should not extend 
more than ^ to | inches beyond the wall of the heel. The clip 
is at the centre of the toe ; occasionally it is omitted. 

The foot surface presents a horizontal margin of sufficient 
width to cover the wall and a narrow rim of the sole; the 
seating is wide at the toe and diminishes in width as it 
approaches the heels, J to 1 inch in front of which it 
terminates. 

Machine-made shoes of the Rodway pattern (fig. 240) are 
largely employed for carriage horses, for which they are very 
suitable. While giving sufficient cover and an excellent foot- 



GUIDING PEINCIPLES IX SHOEING CARRIAGE HORSES. 237 

hold, they are coaiparatively light, and, as now made, durable 
enough for most purposes. In Scotland, a similar shoe is still 
made by hand, the double fullering being produced with a 
special crease. In England, the machine-made Rodway shoe 
has almost entirely superseded the hand-made. 

Concave shoes are useful for horses which forge, and can 
also be applied to animals having strong feet and well-arched 
soles which are required to present a specially smart appearance. 
In the hand-made pattern the dishing of the ground surface 
occasionally ceases an inch or less in front of the heel, but the 




Fig. 236. — Fullered front shoe for cai'riage horse. Foot surface. 

machine-made shoe, being fashioned from rolled bar, is necessarily 
dished throughout. The foot surface is perfectly flat, i.e., 
without seating, though it is well to slightly round the extreme 
inner edge next the sole. 

* Tips ' are referred to on page 256. 

A number of useful machine-made carriage-horse shoes are 
now on the market. For the smaller class of animals with 
strono- feet and well-developed soles, the light shoe of Charlier 
steel is useful, as it allows the frog to come to the ground and 
ensures a good foothold. It is also of value in preventing 
cutting, too frequently a consequence of heavy or ill-fitting 
shoes which tire the animal. The application of this shoe is 
nevertheless restricted ; its narrowness concentrates almost all 
the weio-ht on the wall, into which it sinks, while it affords no 
protection to the heels. Further, its lightness is opposed to 
durability and unfits it for really hard-worked horses. 

The Eodway shoe has already been mentioned. Shoes made 
of corrugated or pattern iron give an excellent foothold, but 
can only be used on strong feet, as the position of the nail holes 
cannot be so carefully selected as in other shoes and fitting is 



238 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



H 



more difficult. Such shoes are also more liable to break than 
those of ordinary pattern, and have never come into very 
extended use. 

The machine-made fullered fore shoe presents no essential 
difference from the hand-made shoe above described. The 
manufacturers now supply hand-made shoes of this pattern 
which have the advantage of lasting somewhat longer, and of 
permitting a clip to be drawn with greater ease, than the 
machine-made article. They also make similar shoes with 




Fig. 237. — Concave fore shoe for cai-riage horse. Ground surface. (The bars . 
appear somewhat too promhient owmg to the preparation of the foot.) 

inside feather-edge for horses which cut and brush. These 
will be more particularly referred to under the head o.i 
' Cutting and Brushing.' 

Unlike those of the hack, the carriage horse's hind shoes 
are generally provided with calkins of equal height, the 
inner being somewhat less wide and rounded on the margi 
facing the opposite hoof. Sometimes the inner calkin ii 
replaced by a wedge or knocked-up heel, though this is undesir 
able unless the animal goes very close or rests one hind-foot oi 
the coronet of the other in the stable. Two calkins give 
much better foothold. The shoe most commonly used has 
calkin outside and wedge heel inside. 

For carriage horses with good action the ordinary shoe has 
two calkins of equal height, the inner slightly smaller than the 



CALKINS V. WEDGE-HEELS FOR CARRIAGE HORSES. 239 

outer, seven nail holes, which extend back considerably beyond 
the centre of the quarter and are sunk in a deep fuller, and a 
broad, solid, and therefore durable toe. The cover is approxi- 
mately equal throughout. The inner heel is well rounded off. 
There is usually a clip at the toe. This has the advantage over 
clips on either side of the toe of allowing the inner branch of 
the shoe to be fitted very close, and of still further avoiding 
the risk of cutting. As the pace is much slower than that of 
the hunter, there is less danger of overreach, and rounding the 
toe, giving two side toe-clips, and setting back the shoe are 
unnecessary. To give additional security, an outside quarter- 
clip may be added. 

The foot surface is perfectly flat and broadest at the toe, 
becoming gradually narrower as it approaches the heels. The 
inner branch of the shoe is slightly narrower than the outer. 

Wedge heels are used to increase wear and diminish the 
danger of ' treading ' the coronet when the horse is in the 
stable. There is little real difference between the shoe with two 
wedge heels and that with an inner wedge heel and an outer 
calkin, though, as the calkin gives a somewhat better foothold 
than the wedge heel, the latter shoe is preferred by many. 

With the object of preventing injury, many horses are shod 
with a ' feather-edge ' inside. The shoe is then nailed around 
the outside and at the toe, and may carry a toe and outside 
quarter-clip. The ' feather-edge ' should be of the same height 
as the outer calkin and be bevelled away from above down- 
wards and well rounded off. This kind of shoe is always ' set 
under ' a trifle and the horn of the quarter and inside of toe 
rasped away so as to leave no sharp edge capable of inflicting 
injury. As the nails are disadvantageously placed, the plain 
stamped shoe (which gives more support to the individual nails 
and can be more easily, and more perfectly, fitted) is to be pre- 
ferred to the fullered shoe. The feather-edged stamped shoe 
has one great mechanical disadvantage : the inner border form- 
ing a plane, polished surface gives practically no grip on the 
ground, the calkin then forms the only holding portion of the 
shoe and there is a constant tendency for the foot to rotate 
round this as around a fixed point. Although competent 
authorities deny that any evil results in practice, it seems 
to us that the use of such shoes, at least on wood and asphalt 



1 



240 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

pavements, must expose the limb to severe and unnecessar 

strains. 

It has been found that many horses, which ' cut ' when shod 
with any form of preventing shoe, go perfectly well with a flat 
shoe, of which the inside branch is bevelled from above down- 
wards. A well-developed frog is almost indispensable, however, 
when this shoe is used, in order to secure foothold, though the 
difficulty may be partly overcome by the employment of india- 
rubber pads. 

It is scarcely needful to say that, for horses which cut, the 
use of hind shoes with a calkin and a flat heel lower than the 
calkin, though common, throws a great strain on the articula- 
tions, and should only be resorted to when all other methods, 
have failed. 



CARKIAGE HORSES. 




Fig. 238. — Fullered fore shoe (seated and tapped for screws). Made from 

1 X I inch iron. 




Fig. 239. — Ground surface of above shoe. 



To face p. 241. J 



SHOEING CARRIAGE HORSES THAT SLIP. 241 



SPECIAL SHOES FOR CARRIAGE HORSES. 



FULLEEED FOEE SHOE, SEATED AND TAPPED 
FOE SCEEWS (Figs. 238, 239). 

Made from 1 X -J- inch iron. 

Shoes when tapped and screwed have a wide range of use- 
fulness. Though primarily intended to check slipping on 
frozen streets, screwed shoes are now frequently used all the 
year round in London, sometimes in conjunction with india- 
rubber pads, for the purpose of assuring a firm foothold on 
asphalt, wood, etc. Even show horses are sometimes shod with 
them if the showyards have become hard from prolonged 
drought. The screw at toe of shoe is useful in hilly country. 

The fullering of the shoe should not extend round the toe 
nor right up to the heels ; half-an-inch being left solid in 
which to punch the screw hole prior to tapping. 

The spikes or blanks can be removed when the horse is 
resting, corks being inserted in the screw holes to exclude 
grit. As the edge of the holes becomes ' burred over,' how- 
ever, even with this precaution, a plug-tap is needed to clear 
them before reinserting the screws. A common plan is to use 
very low blanks when the horse is not at work. This preserves 
the screw holes. To prevent one foot injuring the coronet, 
etc., of the opposite foot when the horse is turning, the inner 
heels are often provided with blanks, the sharps being reserved 
for the outer heels. 



242 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. 

' KODWAY ' FOKE SHOE (Fig. 240). 
Made from |- X ^ inch rolled '' 'pattern ' iron. 

This shoe is made from ' Eodway ' iron by hand. It is 
very largely used in London to minimise slipping on bad roads, 
for which purpose its use may be conjoined with that of india- 
rubber pads or screws. In the country it is scarcely durable 
enough, and its continued use on any but the strongest feet is 
apt to be followed by injury, in consequence of the need for 
frequent renewal. 

It has many important advantages for town work : it affords 
a fair amount of cover ; its thinness allows of the frog coming 
to the ground ; its lightness lessens the chance of the horse 
cutting or striking, while its double grooves give an excellent 
grip of the ground. In light work it wears from three to foui 
weeks, a sufficient time to permit the necessary growth of th 
hoof. Some care is required in heating and turning the special 
iron, to prevent the regularity of the grooves being destroyed, 
especially at the toe. The iron should only be red hot, and 
should be ' pulled ' round on the beak iron rather than 
hammered. 



THIN HEELED FULLEEED SEATED FORE SHOE 

(Fig. 241). 

Made from 1 X |- inch iron. 

This shoe is suitable for animals with thrush, weak or wiry 
heels, bent knees, navicular disease, and in some cases for 
' corn ' and separation at the heels. It may also be used for 
upright boxy feet, with a tendency to contraction ; but in this 
case the heels of the foot must be well lowered before applying 
the shoe. 

In some cases it is an advantage to ' cradle ' the shoe, i.e., 
to thin both toe and heels, leaving the quarters of the full 
thickness of iron, and thus giving a rocking motion to the foot 
during progression. 



C A E E I A a E H E S E S. 




Fig. 240.—' Rodway ' fore shoe. Made from | x ^ inch rolled " pattern" iron. 




Fig. 241. — Thin heeled fullered seated fore shoe. jMade from 1 x g inch iron. 

[To face p. 242. 



CAEEIAGE HOKSES. 




Fig. 242. — Fullered fore shoe (dished on ground surface). Made from 

Ixh inch iron. 



To face p. 243.] 



SHOEING CARKIAGE HOESES THAT FORGE. 243 



FULLERED EOKE SHOE (DISHED ON GEOUND 
SURFACE) (Fig. 242). 

Made from 1 x ^ inch iron. 

Young horses, when first broken to harness, are apt to forge. 
For such as contract this habit, but have weak, spreading feet, 
to which narrow-webbed shoes would be inappKcable, the 
present shoe is indicated. It is also useful for hunters exer- 
cised on roads, and for riding and driving horses. Its ' cover ' 
and flat foot surface cause the pressure due to the animal's 
body-weighfc to be distributed over a wide surface of the foot, 
extending, in fact, towards the centre of the foot beyond the 
white line. 

Should the foot be very ' fleshy ' and the sole thin, the 
inside edge of the foot surface of shoe may require to be 
slightly rounded ofl' or ' eased,' to prevent undue pressure at 
this point. Where the shoe is used for hunters, the heels 
must be sloped away obliquely, and the shoe fitted close at the 
heels to prevent its being trodden off. 



244 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



6. OMNIBUS HORSES. 

Until very recently most omnibus horses were shod in front 
with a plain stamped shoe, of equal thickness throughout, but 
broader at the toe and outer quarter, where the chief wear falls, 
than at other points. To avoid unduly loading the toe, the 
increased breadth is chiefly secured by increased seating out. 
The ordinary shoe has seven nail holes, four outside and three 
inside ; the last outside nail hole is placed at about the centre of 
the quarter. We believe that of late years the London General 
Omnibus Company has adopted a machine-made fullered front 
shoe, which has been found easy to fit and apply, and the use 
of which is steadily extending. Machine-made shoes are less 
durable than hand-made, however, and most private shoeing 
firms continue the use of hand-made stamped shoes for 'bus 
horses, especially for hard wear. 

The hind shoe is of good breadth and thickness at the toe 
and outer quarter where wear is usually severe. To secure 
durability, many hind shoes are made from ' old stuff,' one and 
a half or two shoes producing a new shoe, or a piece of steel is 
welded into the toe. The inner branch of the shoe is slightly 
narrower than the outer, and usually terminates in a wedge 
heel to lessen the danger of ' treading ' the opposite coronet. 
For horses that cut, the inner branch of the shoe bears one or m 
two nail holes close to the toe-clip, is fashioned rather straight 
from the back of the toe as far as the last part of the quarter, 
and fitted very fine. 

The horses of the Compagnie Generale des Omnibus de Paris 
are shod with steel shoes of a much lighter pattern than is 
usual in England. Both fore and hind shoes are thick at the 
toe and become thinner towards the heels. Each has six nail 
holes distributed at equal distances around the toe and is avail- 
able for either a right or left foot. The system is said to work 
very satisfactorily, but we cannot help thinking trouble must 
arise in the shoeing of diseased or weak feet. 



]\I N I B U S HOES E S. 




Fig. 243. — -Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work), with two calkins. 

Made fi-om old shoes. 




Fig. 244.— Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work), with calkin and 
wedge heel. Made from old shoes. 
To face p. 24'..] 



SHOEING OMNIBUS HORSES THAT WEAR AT TOE. 245 



SPECIAL SHOES FOR OMNIBUS WORK. 



STAMPED HIND SHOE (foe Omnibus Work), WITH 
TWO CALKINS (Fig. 243), 

Made from old shoes. 

The toe being the seat of greatest wear in by far the 
majority of cases, this omnibus hind shoe should have a thick- 
ness at that point of |^ inch. To give the necessary durabil- 
ity in cases where wear is exceptionally severe (in ' toe-biters,' 
as the working farrier terms them), a piece of steel may be 
welded into the toe. When the horse drags the toe, a short, 
thick toe-clip is drawn, in which the steel is worked round. 
This protects the point of greatest wear. 

Clips can be drawn at the toe, the toe and outside quarter, 
or at the outside and inside quarters : the latter arrangement 
is of service when it is difficult to keep shoes on. 

The shoe shown is for feet varying from 5^ to 6^ inches in 
width. 

Since the wide adoption of foot brakes on omnibuses, many 
horses in this service are shod with flat shoes behind. Many 
persons still prefer calkins, however, as giving horses a better 
foothold when descending hills and turning corners. 



STAMPED HIND SHOE (for Omnibus Work), WITH 
CALKIN AND WEDGE HEEL (Fig. 244). 

Made from old sJioes. 

This shoe only differs from the preceding in having a wedge 
heel inside in place of a calkin. The wedge heel is greatly to 



246 ' THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

be preferred when a horse is in the habit of resting the heel 
of the hind shoe on the coronet of the opposite foot while in 
the stable, or when an animal, in consequence of skin irritation, 
scratches its hind-legs with the heels of the shoes. ? In such 
cases the wedge heel can be cut off obliquely, leaving a sloping 
surface, much less likely to inflict dangerous wounds than is 
the square-sided calkin. 

The size and thickness of the shoe are similar to those of 
that preceding. 



STAMPED FOKE SHOE FOR OMNIBUS WOEK 

(Fig. 245). 

Made from 1 X -f inch iron. . 

This is the shoe commonly used in London for omnibus 
work, though machine-made fullered shoes are also largely 
employed. It should be fitted quite full at the quarters, and 
well ' boxed up ' to the foot, i.e., the upper outer edge should 
be rasped round so as to present a slanting surface about -^ inch 
in breadth extending round the outer and upper margin of the 
shoe. This minimises risk of the shoe being torn off. The 
heels should be fitted fairly long, care being taken, however, 
that they are not so prolonged as to endanger the shoe being 
trodden off. 

The foot surface of this shoe is seated. 



OMIS^BUS HORSES. 




Fig. 245.— Stamj)ed fore shoe (for omiiibus work\ ^[ade from 
1x4 inch iron. 



I To face p. 246. 



PROPORTIONS OF CAiri' HORSE SHOES. 247 



7. CAHT HORSES. 

Owing to the position assumed in hauling heavy weights, the 
cart horse wears most heavily at the toe and outer quarter. 
These points must, therefore, be strengthened to the utmost 
without unduly increasing weight, whilst the less worn parts 
must be of a strength corresponding to the degree of attrition; 
A careful examination of the old shoe will soon show what 
parts require to be strengthened. 

The front shoe is generally of equal thickness throughout. 
The cover is greatest at the toe and diminishes towards the 
heels. There are seven to eight nail holes, those on the outer 
rather more widely spaced than those on the inner side. To 
increase the solidity and wear of the shoe nail holes are some- 
times omitted from the parts where friction is greatest. The 
toe-clip is, if anything, somewhat towards the outer side of the 
toe. 

The hoof surface presents a plain rim sufficiently wide to 
cover the wall and about ^ of an inch of the outer margin of 
the sole. The seating terminates 1 to 1^ inches from the heel, 
which is well rounded and which should project ^ to f of an 
inch beyond that of the foot when the shoe is affixed. Although 
in London the front shoe is usually flat it is customary in many 
parts of the country, especially in Newcastle, Liverpool, and 
Scotland, and on the continent, to raise the heels by the use of 
low^ calkins or, short of this, to considerably increase the thick- 
ness of the heel itself. This will be referred to in the succeed- 
ing pages. 

The hind shoe is thickest and broadest at the toe ; the inner 
branch is narrower than the outer, is fitted close to the foot, 
and the inside nail holes extend back to a less distance than 
the outer; there are two calkins of equal height, the inner 
somewhat narrower than the outer, and tw^o clips, one at the 
toe and one at the outer quarter. The calkins should not 
much exceed in heicrht double the thickness of the shoe at the 
quarter. Horses which ' tread ' the opposite coronet may be 
shod with an inside wedge heel. Calkins favour the muscular 
action of the limb and greatly assist the animal in descending 
hills. To help the animal in starting, Pader suggested placing 



248 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

the calkins much further forward than usual. The upper 
surface of the shoe is perfectly flat and only the inner margin 
is slightly rounded off. Cart horses seldom overreach or cut 
in their ordinary work, so that no special precautions are 
needed on this account. 

The Scotch cart-horse shoe is usually straighter in the" 
branches than the English shoe, the calkins are broader from 
side to side but not so long, and the quarters are fullered. 

Shunting horses, employed for moving railway trucks, should 
be shod very close and short and the heels of their shoes bevelled 
to prevent the shoes becoming fixed in points or sleepers ; 
calkins are absolutely contra-indicated. 

Pit ponies require similar precautions. 



CAET HOESES. 




Fig. 246. — Cart ■horse hind shoe for town work, Made from old shoes. 



Tofaxef. 249.] 



CART HOKSE SHOES FOR TOWN AVORK. 249 



SPECIAL SHOES FOR CART HORSES 



CART HORSE HIND SHOE FOR TOWN WORK 

(Fig. 246). 

Made from old shoes. 

Being made from 'old stuff' this shoe is more durable than 
if made from new iron. It has a thickness at the toe of |- inch. 
The clip is drawn at the toe, or at toe and outside quarter. 
The calkins should be square, short and strong, not higher in 
fact than is necessary to ensure a secure foothold. Calkins are 
of considerable importance to the town cart horse, because, as a 
rule, the strain of checking the load on inclines falls entirely on 
the horse, foot-brakes being fitted only to certain of the four- 
wheeled vehicles and to few of the two-wheeled. Further- 
more, they are almost indispensable to the animal in backing a 
load. 

The shoe illustrated is for feet of 6 to 7 inches in width. 

Though less durable, cart horse hind shoes can be made from 
new iron. A useful size is 1^ x |^ inches. 

\: Front shoes made from 1^ x |- inch iron should be fitted 
rather long, very full at heels and well ' boxed up.' They 
usually require an outside quarter clip to prevent their being 
driven acro.ss the foot. 



250 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



CAET HOESE STAMPED FOKE SHOE FOR 
SHOW PURPOSES (Fig. 247). 

Made from 1^ X J inch iron. 

To give an appearance of strength to defective, weak, or 
shelly feet, and to improve the appearance of fairly good feet, 
the shoe is made ' boxed up ' (as it is termed) * the vv^rong way 
on.* In less technical language, the outer wall of the shoe is 
given such a bevel that when the shoe is nailed on it appears 
as a continuation of the wall of the foot ; or, the circumference 
of the shoe is greater at the ground than at the foot surface. 
This makes the foot, when lifted for inspection, appear wider. 

This shoe is unsuited for ordinary work on account of its 
favouring cutting, especially when somewhat worn ; the inner 
ground edge then ' burrs over,' forming a sharp saw-like margin, 
and may inflict ugly wounds on the opposite coronet or fetlock. 

Owing to its shape, the nail holes must be so stamped as to 
appear very 'coarse' when viewed from the ground surface. 
Vide illustration. 



CART HORSE STAMPED HIND SHOE FOR 
SHOW PURPOSES (Fig. 248). 

Made from 1-J- X f inch iron. 

This shoe is made and used in precisely the same way an(| 
for the same purpose as the foregoing. The heels may be level, 
as shown, or wedged, according to whether it is desired to give 
a natural bearing or to raise the heels. 




[To face p. ■!:<[). 







To face p. 251.] 



CART HORSE SHOES EOR WORK ON GRANITE ' SETTS.' 251 

'NOETH COUNTRY' STAMPED FORE SHOE 

(Fig. 249). 

Made from IJ x ^- inch iron. 

This shoe has strong low calkins and a long toe-piece 
welded or ' shut-on ' across the toe ; the toe-piece extends about 
-| inch on either side of the toe. It is used throughout the 
North ; in fact, wherever steep inclines paved with granite 
' setts ' are to be found. The toe-piece drops into the interval 
between two rows of stones and gives a firm foothold for 
starting a load, while the calkins enable the horse to hold back 
his load in coming down hill and assist him greatly when 
backing. The toe-piece and calkins being of equal height do 
not disturb the natural level of the foot, though they necessarily 
lift the frog from the ground. 

The shoe {vide illustration) is well seated out to prevent 
pressure on a weak or ' dropped ' sole. 

'NORTH COUNTRY' STAMPED HIND SHOE 

(Fig. 250). 

Made from. 1-^ X ^ inch iron. 

This is the hind shoe corresponding to that just described 
and is similarly fitted. With regard to the toe-piece, a few 
words may be said as to the process of welding or ' shutting-on.' 
The shoe must be finished and the clip drawn preparatory to 
welding. A light rod of iron having been selected, the end is 
drawn down so as to form the intended toe-piece and the part 
half cut through but not detached, as the bar is intended to 
form a handle for manipulating the toe-piece. The toe-piece 
and shoe are then heated together to a white (welding) heat, 
care being taken to keep both free from dirt and not to melt 
the clip from off the shoe ; (this may easily happen if the clip 
is allowed to come in the direct line of the blast). The toe- 
piece and bar should be so hot as to ' sizzle ' when withdrawn 
from the fire. The toe-piece is adjusted in position on the shoe, 
arid with one or two light blows is welded. Some farriers 
stamp a hole in the shoe and draw out a tang on the toe-piece 
with which to fasten the two together before heating. The 
first described is, however, the most workman-like method. 



252 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



^ 



STAMPED FORE SHOE FOR FARM A¥ORK 

(Fig. 251). 

Made from 1^ or 1^ X ^ inch iron. 

As the amount of wear at farm work is comparatively light, 
the above section of iron is found quite sufficient for horses 
with feet up to 7 inches in width. The shoe is slightly seated 
and has 8 nail holes, and is fitted rather full at the heels. The 
heels of the shoe, however, must be kept shorter than is usual 
for town work, as there is a greater chance of the shoe being 
torn or trodden off in heavy ground. Marked seating-out is 
also to be avoided, as it increases the suction experienced under 
similar circumstances. A toe-clip is usually sufficient except 
when the outside lieel is very wiry, in which case three nail 
holes fairly close together should be punched at the outside 
toe and a quarter clip drawn just behind the last. The shoe 
should be fitted wider than usual at the outside heel. In ex- 
ceptional cases it may even be necessary to punch 5 nail holes 
inside. 



STAMPED HIND SHOE FOR FARM WORK 

(Fig. 252). 

Made from 1^ X -J- inch iron. 

On account of its having no calkins, this shoe is pf ten termed 
the ' farmer's flat.' The absence of calkins is in every way 
an advantage, because farm horses seldom have loads to back, 
and when they are turned out to grass together there is less 
chance of their injuring one another by kicking. The thinness 
of the shoe allows of its being bent cold, a point of considerable 
importance when it is remembered that farm horses are often 
shod at the stable. 

To lessen the chance of nails breaking in animals which 
stamp or kick in the stable, an outside quarter clip or even 
outside and inside quarter clips may be fitted. 



CART HORSES. 




Fig. 2.51. — Stamped fore slioe (for farm work). Made from 
1:1 or 1^ X h inch iron. 




Fig. 252.— Stamped hind shoe (for farm work). ^\adc fi'om 
li X ^ inch iron. 

[To face J). 2'>2. 



CART HORSES. 





Fig. 253; — Stamped fore shoe (for railway shunting horses). 
Made from 1^x1 inch iron. 




Fig. 254,— Stamped hind shoe (for railway shunting horses). 
Made from 1^ x | incli iron. 



To face 11. 253.] 



CAKT HOKSE SHOES FOR FAKM AND SHUNTING WORK. 253 



STAMPE]) FOEE SHOE FOR RAILWAY SPTUNTTNG 
HORSES (Fig. 253). 

Made from 1|^ X f inch iron. 

There being a great risk of shunting liorses' slioes catching 
in sleepers, rails, ' points,' etc., or of their being torn ofl' by the 
hind-feet, special precautions are required in making and fitting 
them. The heels must be fitted very closely to those of the 
foot and be sloped off very obliquely on the ground surface. 
With a special view to prevent the heels of the shoe catching 
in ' points; it might be of advantage to form the quarters and 
heels slightly concave. Shunting horses being much exposed 
to the risk of ' picking-up ' nails whilst working in railway 
yards, it is generally advisable to shoe them with leather soles 
as a protection. 

The shoe shown is suitable for foot 6 to 7 inches wide. 



STAMPED HIND SHOE FOR RAILWAY SHUNTING 

(Fig. 254). 

Made from 1^ x |- inch iron . 

For reasons stated above, calkins or wedge heels are inadmis- 
sible on the hind shoes of shuntiniij horses. The heels of the 
shoe are rounded and sloped off obliquely on the ground surface 
and are fitted very short, closely following tlie contour of the 
foot. 

The above shoe is suitable for feet 6 to 7 inches wide. 



L 



254 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

The following systems of shoeing exhibit special features, 
which lead us to consider them separately: — 



8. THE CHARLIEE SHOE. 

In or about 1854 Messrs Mavor of London and Duluc of 
Bordeaux suggested the use of comparatively narrow, thick 
shoes to prevent slipping on greasy pavements. Mavor directed 
his shoe, which was without fullering, to be fitted warm and 
in such a way as to be slightly incrusted in the foot. 

In 1865 Charlier introduced a system, in which a narrow, 
deep band of iron, without fullering, was sunk in a groove 
encircling the entire ground surface of the hoof. To secure 
frog and sole pressure the ground surface of the shoe when 
applied was on a level with that of the foot. Charlier claimed 
to afford the necessary protection to the wall without in any 
way diminishing the natural elasticity of the foot or impeding 
its expansion. 

The Charlier shoe corresponds exactly in shape to the form 
of the hoof, is deeper than broad, of equal thickness throughout 
or slightly less broad in the inner branch. 

The hoof surface is a trifle narrower than the ground surface ; 
the upper and inner margin is rounded off. There are from 
six to eight oval nail holes punched obliquely so as to obtain 
the best (possible) hold of the wall. The heels are rounded, 
of the same length as those of the hoof and inclined to corre- 
spond with the direction of the wall. 

In preparing the foot, the special guarded knife shown in 
fig. 257 is used to form the groove in which the shoe is lodged. 
The sole and frog remain untouched save when partially loose 
fragments require removal. 

As stated, Charlier claimed by this method of shoeing to 
permit expansion of the foot, to restore diseased feet to their 
normal shape, to favour development of the frog, and to prevent 
or cure contraction of the heels, sandcrack, corns, etc. 

These claims have in large measure been rejected, and, in 
point of fact, the Charlier system of shoeing has of late years 
largely gone out of fashion in England. There are several 
reasons for this. The deep groove cut to accommodate the 



ADVANTAGES AND DllAWBACKS OF CHARLIEK SYSTEM. 255 

shoe weakens the union between sole and wall and, except in 
specially strong feet, approaches dangerously near sensitive 
structures. In this connection it must not be forgotten that 
horn, even in thick layers, is a yielding substance (so that the 
untouched wall will gradually be affected by constantly 
maintained pressure), and that, though a considerable thickness 
of sound horn separates the shoe from the nearest vascular 
structure, evil results may follow, though tardily. 

The inventor recognised this and advised that the groove be 
not sunk beyond the point to which the sole would be pared 
in ordinary shoeing. Unfortunately, with so shallow a groove 
the frog no longer comes to the ground, because, on account of 
its want of cover, the shoe has to be very much thicker than 
the ordinary form. And this raising of the whole foot is ill- 
compensated by the increased thickness of the sole, etc., 
especially when compared with modern shoeing, in which the 
sole is spared and therefore retains all its strength. 

Again, if the heels of the shoe be sunk deeper into the hoof 
in order to preserve frog pressure, an increased load is thrown 
on the tendons, with undesirable results. 

In frosty weather the horse shod witli Charlier shoes slips 
badly ; not so badly, perhaps, as the horse with ordinary shoes, 
but infinitely more than one with cogs or screws or even rough 
heels. And the Charlier system admits of no efiective rough- 
ing, so on this score it certainly has no advantage. 

When first introduced a great deal was said of the lightness 
of the Charlier shoe, ISTow, though very narrow, this shoe is 
necessarily made very deep, and therefore heavy, not only to 
resist wear but to prevent it opening under the weight of the 
body, because, weight for weight, a broad thin shoe offers 
infinitely greater resistance to this spreading movement than a 
narrow deep shoe. The increase in depth is so considerable 
that for small feet the Charlier shoe has little advantage over 
the ordinary form. In large feet, on the otlier hand, it has a 
marked advantage. 

As the shoe surrounds the foot like a ring, one of two things 
must occur when the animal is in fast work : either the shoe 
must totally prevent expansion of the heels, or the force of 
expansion must be so great as to drive the heels of the shoe 
asunder. We believe it is the pain caused by this constant 



256 THE practicp: of shoeing. 

effort of the foot to expand, and the equally constant constric- 
tion by the shoe, which is largely responsible for the low, shooting 
action which horses thus shod soon acquire. Pain is greatest 
when expansion is greatest. Expansion is greatest when pressure 
on the posterior parts of the foot is greatest ; pressure on these 
parts is greatest when the foot descends most nearly perpen- 
dicularly to the ground, hence the animal avoids raising the 
foot high and brings it to the ground as obliquely as possible. 

Preparing the foot, fitting and nailing on are delicate opera- 
tions ; the shoe is ill-adapted for defective or diseased feet, wear 
is comparatively rapid ; when partly worn, the shoe is liable to 
spread, and, owing to complications, the system is more costly 
than ordinary shoeing. 

We do not deny that the Charlier system, when introduced, 
had many good points ; it taught the farrier to spare the sole 
and bars, it drew attention to the need of frog pressure, and it 
showed the advantages of light as opposed to heavy shoes. At 
the present day it is still useful as a front shoe for ponies and 
hunters with small narrow feet, for animals which slip on 
smooth pavements, and for those with commencing contraction 
of the foot; but to the reputation of a panacea, formerly 
awarded it, the Charlier system has forfeited all claim. 



9. TIPS. 

The tip covers the toe and a portion of the quarters and only 
protects the anterior half of the hoof against wear. There are 
two kinds ; firstly, the ordinary tip, and secondly, the modified 
or Charlier tip. 

The advantages of this method of shoeing consist in the light 
weight of the shoe, which in the case of ordinary tips is about 
five to seven ounces and in Charlier four to seven ounces ; but 
principally in the fact that the posterior half of the hoof comes 
directly in contact with the ground, giving more frog-pressure, 
diminishing slipping, moderating the shock to the limb, and 
favouring circulation in the hoof, thus producing a more rapid 
growth of horn and increasing the strength of the foot, while 
allowing of the freest possible expansion and contraction. Tips 
are very useful for hunters ' turned up rough.' Nevertheless, 



f 



tips; their form and application. 257 

they have certain disadvantages. Thus they are not sufficiently 
durable and do not protect the hoof enough for hard work. 
They last, as a rule, from ten to twenty days, but this is scarcely 
enough to permit sufficient growth. They are most useful for 
young horses in light work in which the foot, when viewed 
from in front, is of normal shape, and when viewed from the 
side does not appear oblique. They are more useful for front 
than for hind feet, though an exception may be made when the 
hoof, faultless in form, is provided with a strong wall and the 
horn is of good quality. 

(1) The ordinary tip has a breadth at the toe of from -j^^.- to 
J inch, and a thickness of | inch. Towards the extremities, 
the inner angles of which should be rounded off, it becomes 
thinner. The extent to which the thickness should be 
diminished posteriorly depends on the strength of the horn in 
the foot in question. In weak hoofs the ends of the tip should 
be thin and fitted full, though even then the correct relation 




Fig. 255.— OitUnary tip. Fig. 25G.— Upright hoof shod with a tii). 

between the position of the hoof and that of the fetlock cannot 
always be attained. In strong feet, on the other hand, it is 
sufficient if the extremities are left 4- to -A- inch in thickness. 

4< lb 

The ground surface of the tip requires no fuller and can be 
dished out. As a rule four or five nail holes are sufficient. 

This method of shoeing is most easily carried out when the 
feet are strong. The bearing surface of the wall is only 
lowered in the usual way at the points to be covered by the 
tip, that is, the toe and part of the quarters. The ground 
surface of the finished tip, which is to some extent embedded 
in the anterior half of the hoof, must lie in the same plane as 
the ground surface of the heels. Where the horn is very 
strong and the anterior half of the hoof requires to be much 
lowered, the remaining horn in the posterior half may project 

R 



258 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



below the shoe. In such case it should be reduced to a level 
with the shoe by the aid of the rasp. 

When shoeing weak feet the first and chief consideration is 
the form of the foot as seen from the side. As the tip is not 
then embedded, it is apt to raise the toe and by throwing the 




Fig. 257. —Special knife with stop used in preparing the groove for Charlier tips. 

hoof out of line with the axis of the foot to injure the animal's 
action. The horse is liable to stumble and fall or to go lame, 
especially when ridden on hard ground. To meet peculiarities 
in the formation of the limb, the form of the hoof, the style of 
the tread and wear, the tip may, in exceptional cases, require 
to be modified, one branch to be longer than the other, or both 
branches to be lengthened. 

An offspring of the Charlier shoe, and one which preserves 
many of its best features, is : — 

(2) The Charlier tip, which consists of a thin half shoe, not 
exceeding in hreadth that of the wall into which it is sunk, 





Fig. 258.— Hoof prepared for Charlier tip. Fig. 259.— Hoof shod with Charlier tip. 



usually fullered and exhibiting from four to five nail holes. 
The outer margin is either perpendicular or slightly sloped out- 
wards and the inner upper margin well rounded off; the nail 
holes are punched as near the middle as possible and are 



CHARLIER TIP. 259 

'pitched in,' otherwise they are apt to split the wall. The 
length varies somewhat, though perhaps the best results are 
obtained when the ends of the shoe do not extend further than 
the middle of the quarter ; sometimes one branch extends to the 
heel, the other stopping short at the middle of the quarter 
(three-quarter tip). The groove for the tip is made by first 
rasping away the edge of the hoof and then using the special 
Charlier knife (fig. 257). It is very important to obtain 
accurate fitting. 

Should a Charlier shoe or tip be lost, lameness readily follows 
from pressure on the sole, and unless the hoof be exceptionally 
strong it becomes very difficult to affix an ordinary shoe. 



Fia. 260. —Stamped fore tip. Made from 5 x il inch iruii. 

The Charlier tip is most useful for upright ' blocky ' feet 
with wired-in heels and atrophied frogs, in which its use is often 
followed by remarkable improvement in a comparatively short 
time. As in the case of the Charlier shoe its use demands 
much care, skill, and judgment. 

Tips are of much value for horses turned out at grass, or 
doing light work. They permit the frog to come to the ground, 
promote greater physiological activity of the horn-secreting 
structures, thus increasing the growth of horn, produce a large 
healthy frog, often cure thrush, and when contraction of the 
foot is taking place are of great service. In the latter case, 
the heels should be well lowered before applying the tip. Tips, 
again, are useful for horses worked on asphalt and wood pave- 



260 



THE TEACTICE OF SHOEING. 



ment, as they permit the frog to come to the ground and check 
sHpping. 

The quarters of the tip must be fitted ' full/ otherwise 
the foot is apt to suffer, the horn spreading over the tip 
and splitting off. The tip illustrated is broader than usual. 
It is intended for a rather weak, fleshy foot, with thin 
quarters. 



10. SIE F. FITZWYGRAM'S SHOE. 

The wel.) of the shoe is not wider than the weight bearing 
surface and is of even width until it approaches the heel, 
where the inner margin exactly follows the course of the bars, 
on which it rests. The ground surface of the shoe is dished 
evenly from without inwards, corresponding in shape to the 




Fig. 261.— Sir 1\ Fitzwygram's shoe. 

concavity of the sole. There are five nail holes, three outside 
and two inside. About half the width of the toe is thinned 
on the beak of the anvil and rolled upwards, forming a kind of 
broad clip extending almost from the beginning of the inside 
quarter to a corresponding point on the outside. In fitting, 
the toe of the foot is rounded to a similar extent. 



.SIR F. F1TZWV(;KAM'S SHOE. 



261 



The hoot' surface of the .shoe is perfectly Hal. 

This method of shoeing is not alxsolutely novel, for rounding 
of the toe has always ])een rcicoguised as an advantage and 
forms part of both the German and French systems of shoein**-. 
In the former it is termed ' Zehenrichtung,' and in the latter 
' Ajusture.' It is only in the degree to which this rolling is 
carried and in the peculiar dishing of the ground surface of the 
shoe that the novelty of the above method consists 




I n :^<J2.— Sir K. Kit/wygram's shoe. 

For strong, fairly liealthy feet, for high lilocky feet with a 
tendency to contraction, disease of the frog or corns, for navicular 
disease, and for hunters ' stale ' in their action and liable to 
stumble, we regard the Fitzwygram shoe as excellent. It is 
somewhat difficult to make and fit, however, and does not suit 
horses with Hat or ' dropped ' soles or those with large spread- 
ing feet and thin defective crust. 



11. THl^ TURKISH OR ORIENTAL SHOE 

Is said to have been used by the Arabs since the year 622 a.d. 
It consists of a flat plate of iron, very broad at the toe and 
narrowing towards the heels (which are welded together) in 
such a way as to enclose a round or triangular space, through 



262 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



which access may be had to the frog. The shoe (fig. 263) with 
rounded aperture is common in Turkey, that with triangular 
aperture in Africa. The hoof surface is wider than the ground 
surface, so that the upper outer margin slightly overhangs the 
lower. There are six to eight round nail holes equally spaced 
in the quarters, but none at the toe. The shoe is fitted cold, 
the horn being allowed to project a trifle beyond the shoe at 
the quarters, and to a considerable extent at the toe ; the heels 
of the shoe are bent upwards so as to protect the bulbs of the 




i'lG. 263.— Oriental shoe. 



foot. After nailing on, the hoof is trimmed to the shoe by 
means of a large knife. The nails have large strong heads with 
lateral projections, the object of which is to give increased foot- 
hold. As these projections meet when the nails are driven 
home, they also tend to mutually support each other. The 
neck of the nail is round, the shank, however, square, and the 
point tapering. The point is not wrung off after driving, and 
there are no clenches, but the projecting portion is formed into 
a spiral, which is gently beaten flat on the wall of the hoof. 
As the iron of which the nails are composed is of excellent 
quality, this method permits of the same nail being used more 
than once. 

The Oriental shoe, as opposed to that used in Europe, takes 



ORIENTAL SHOE AND SHOES WITH ROPE, WOOD, ETC. INLAID. 263 

a bearing over a large portion of the sole and is not bedded on 
the wall alone. The nail holes not being countersunk, the 
shoe being thin and the nails not fitting with absolute accuracy, 
a certain degree of expansion is possible. Whether the excel- 
lence of Arab horses' feet be due to Oriental slioeing is largely- 
open to question, but the method at least teaches one useful 
lesson, viz., the ability of the sole to bear weight and, under 
favourable circumstances, the positive advantage of imposing 
weight upon it. 



12. SPECIAL GROOVED SHOES WITH ROPE 

INLAID. 

These shoes are of cast Bessemer steel, and present on the 
ground surface a broad deep channel filled with a piece of 
tarred rope (fig. 264); the hoof surface resembles that of an 




Fig. 2&4. 



ordinary seated shoe. The rope is removed before fitting and 
replaced after the shoe has been nailed on. Tlie advantages of 
these shoes are their lightness and their power of diminishing 
slipping on stone, wood, and asphalt pavements ; they do not 
prevent falls, however, in wintry weather. To some extent they 
diminish shock. 

Owing to their method of manufacture they will not bear 
heating to a high temperature, nor much alteration in shape, 
and therefore are only of value for sound, well-formed feet. 



264 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. 

They are widely used in the large towns of Germany, especially 
as front shoes. 

They have the further disadvantages of being difficult to 
nail on (the nails can only be driven home by means of a 
punch), and the fact that the thickness of the shoe prevents 
the frog touching the ground. They are apt to crack and 
readily bend when half worn through, to prevent which they 
are now frequently made in the form of bar shoes. 

Steel bars with wood inlaid are made in Copenhagen. A 
groove on the ground surface contains a firmly compressed ring 
of wood. They are exceedingly light and correct in construc- 
tion, but are very noisy, and as they cannot be warmed, their 
use is confined to cases where they exactly fit the hoof. 

Shoes with rubber inlaid are made by a number of firms. 
In certain cases the shoe is cast, in others it is rolled. In the 
latter the nails are driven through the rubber ; in the former, 
however, the rubber is inserted after the shoe is nailed on. 
Eubber is neither so cheap nor so lasting as rope. 



8. Changing from one Style of Shoeing to Another. 

It is sometimes found desirable to vary the style of shoeing, 
a horse which has been accustomed to flat shoes, for instance, 
being shod with tips, or with calkins, or again with toe-pieces. 
In making such change it is of great importance to note the 
way in which the foot is brought to the ground, and the 
direction of its axis. Whatever the form of the new^ shoe, 
the horse should tread level. Horses working on hard streets 
require the greatest care under such circumstances, for even a 
slight change, if continued, may seriously injure the action. 
Throwing the horse on its toe seems to be more serious than 
the opposite condition. The direction of the foot axis is of 
equal importance with the tread. Where the foot grows rather 
oblique (fig. 202), as happens when the shoe becomes worn, the 
animal has difficulty both in standing and going on hard ground, 
but when the opposite condition occurs this difficulty is want- 
ing. It is, however, best to always seek a normal tread and a 
normal position of the foot axis. 



PKECAUTIONS REQUIRED WHEN CHANGING STYLE OF SHOE. 265 

Bearing this in mind, it is easy to see that a change t'roni 
shoes with calkins to those without may be injurious, and in 
fact is injurious, if the toe be not shortened to such an extent 
as to restore the foot and hoof axes to their normal relationship. 
In the event of the horn being too weak to permit of thus 
lowering the toe, the shoes should at least be somewliat thicker 
at the heels. 

The following sometimes occurs : — The owner of a horse 
shod with calkins hears of the advantages of tiat shoes, and 
without further notice has his horse's shoes removed and 
replaced with Hat shoes. He finds, however, tlie horse goes 
worse than formerly, and blames fiat shoes accordingly. The 
cause of this tied-in gait, and the tripping and stumbling, is to 
l)e souo'ht in the low heels. Eemoval of the calkins has 
disturbed the relations of the hoof and foot axes, and has 
produced another kind of tread, in wdiich the toe comes first to 
the ground. Had the farrier been guided by the conformation 
and tread, and had he found it impossible to shorten the toe, 
-owing to want of horn, he could either have objected to the 
•change, or, at least, selected shoes with thick heels, which would 
not have destroyed the balance. 



9. The Shape and Fitting of the Shop:. 

Shaping and fitting the shoe, like preparing the hoof, are 
most important parts of the farrier's duty. Fitting can be 
performed with the shoe either hot or cold. In this work 
.skill and the ability to 'carry the form in his eye' are 
absolutely necessary. 

Hot fitting has the advantage of allowing faults in the shoe 
to be rapidly corrected, as well as producing very perfect 
•coaptation between shoe and foot in the shortest possible time. 
A hot shoe should never be applied to the hoof for more than 
ten to thirty seconds, otherwise serious injury, such as burning 
the sole and causing inflammation of sensitive structures, may 
be done. 

Cold fitting certainly avoids these disadvantages, but never 
produces such complete contact between shoe and hoof, nor can 
•the peculiarities of the hoof or of the gait be so exactly 



266 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



1 



compensated for, as in hot fitting. Nevertheless, under certain 
circumstances, as in war, etc., it may be advantageous. It is 
impossible to give detailed directions to meet all circumstances. 
Flat shoes must be fitted somewhat differently to those with 
calkins and toe-pieces, and variations have constantly to be 
made to meet special requirements. 

In fitting the shoe it should be brought to a bright red 
heat. If irregularly heated, the hammer often produces dis- 
tortion in other parts than those to be altered. The nearer 
either limb of the shoe approaches the middle line of the hoof, 
the greater the wear on it and the greater the weight thrown 
on that particular half of the hoof, while at the same time the 
bearing surface is reduced. The converse is equally true, though 
the results of all such peculiarities are more marked on the 
outer side of the shoe. The same principle applies both to 
the toes and limbs of the shoe. N"eedless to say, the distances 
through which such modifications are possible can be measured 
only in sixteenths of an inch. It is always necessary to keep 
the inner limb of the hind shoe comparatively narrow, and the 
calkin (if present) well rounded off, both to avoid the shoe 
being trodden on and to prevent striking. 

It should also be remembered that it is an advantage and 
preserves the wall to provide the broadest possible bearing 
surface between the shoe and the hoof. The breadth of the 
bearing surface of the shoe must necessarily correspond to that 
of the wall, the white line, and the narrow rim of sole before 
indicated. In flat, oblique hoofs, therefore, with oblique walls, 
the bearing surface must be broader than in others. 

All defects on the bearing surface, in the nail holes, etc., 
must be removed in fitting, clips must be drawn, and the shoes 
made to correspond exactly to the contour of the foot. The 
bearing surface, especially at the back of the shoe, must be 
absolutely horizontal, its breadth being regulated by that of 
the hoof. When it slopes inwards that very injurious con- 
traction of the hoof which always occurs to a certain extent as 
a result of shoeing will be promoted. In the region of the nail 
holes, on the contrary, a slight slope is not only harmless, but 
indeed favourable. G-enerally speaking, a shoe should be a 
plane, so that if laid on a flat surface all portions of its hoof- 
bearing margin will be in contact with it. The only exceptions 



WTTING THE SHOE TO FOOT. 



267 



are shoes with a rolled toe and special shoes, such as those for 
laminitis. 

Some front shoes are rounded at the toe (fig. 265) ; as a 
rule, this rounding off should commence at about the centre of 
the toe and be carried upwards to a distance equal to half the 
thickness of the iron. This corresponds to the form produced 
by natural wear, and is said to facilitate the last portion of the 
stride. The truth of the statement is, however, somewhat 
doubtful At the best the toe should only be ' rolled ' when 
the horse wears excessively at that point. A rounded toe, 
though possibly of use to heavy horses in slow work, prevents 
the horse obtaining a firm ' grip ' of the ground, is awkward to 
form and to fit, makes it difficult to produce a satisfactory clip, 




Fig. 265. 



and allowing, for the sake of argument, that it facilitates turning 
and other movements in a small space, certainly decreases the 
animal's speed. Those who claim that it reproduces the form 
assumed by the unshod hoof, forget that tlie shoe in nowise 
reproduces the hoof, and that the bearing of the unshod lioof 
is altogether different from that of the shoe. 

{a) Fitting Shoes to Normal Feet. — After selecting the shoe, 
giving it the proper form, and drawing the clips, it is applied to 
the hoof at a dull red, in order to see whetlier it fits. Errors 
in shape, etc., are then corrected, and any points on the hoof 
which have been left too high are lowered by rasping away the 
burnt horn. Provided the parts have been correctly trimmed 
and the shoe holed, the depression for the toe-clip can then 



268 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. 



1 



be made, though only sufficient should be cut away to enable 
the clip to lie close. 

The shoe fits, (1) when its outer border corresponds with 
that of the bearing surface of the wall throughout the toe and 
quarters, from which points it becomes rather wider as it runs 
backward, so that at the heels it projects on either side from 
^ to yV i"ch ; (2) when the nail holes correspond to the 
white line ; and (3) when it lies in absolute contact with 
wall, white line, and a narrow zone of the sole as wide as a 
straw. 

The width of the shoe can be judged best by grasping the 
fetlock with the left hand, allowing the hoof to fall slightly, 
and viewing the parts from aboA^e and behind. 

With the exception of the narrow zone indicated, a space of 
^ inch should exist between the shoe and sole, due partly to 
the spring of the sole, partly to the seating of the shoe. A 
narrow space should also separate the extremities of the heels 
from the froo. 

A good general rule is to fit the shoe to the hoof, but in 
such a way as to produce the best possible form of hoof. 
Faults in the shoe should never be compensated by altering 
the hoof. In dealing with hoofs already deformed we should 
seek gradually to give the shoe such a form as the hoof had 
when healthy, a principle derived from the experience that the 
hoof after a time takes the form of the shoe. 

As soon as the shoe is cool, the nail holes are again punched 
from the ground surface and the outer border of the shoe is 
rasped round. This rasping gives a smart appearance, and 
removes any sharp points or roughness. To prevent cutting, 
the edges of the inner side of the shoe should receive special 
attention. In filing up the shoe only one part should be 
grasped in the jaws of the vice at once, or otherwise the entire 
shoe may be bent. 

(b) Shoes for irregular Conformations. — In cases where the 
foot or limb is abnormal, it, is no longer sufficient to fit the 
shoe to the hoof, but an attempt to improve the position of the 
limb must be made, in order to secure proper distribution of 
weight and to ensure better support ; the more defective the 
formation the more necessary does this become. 

As already mentioned, the hoof of a turned-in foot differs in 



MODIFICATIONS OF SHOE FOR IKliEGULAK CONFOKMATION, ETC. 1^69 

shape from that of one which is turned out. The (hstributiou 
of weight is also different, and some change in the width of the 
posterior portion of the limb of the shoe, therefore, becomes 
necessary. In shoeing turned-out feet the inner limb of the 
shoe must be rather wider than the outer : in turned-in feet 
the opposite. How much cannot, of course, be exactly stated ; 
it depends on the amount of deformity, and on whether the 
shoe is flat or has calkins and toe-grips. In well-marked out- 
turned toes the inner part of the toe should be rather flattened, 
allowing even the wall to project in order to prevent striking. 
In turned-in toes the shoe is fitted so that the inner limb 
exactly corresponds to the inner circumference of the hoof, the 
sharp edge of which should be rounded off rather more than 
usual. At the same time the outer limV) from the toe back- 
wards should be fairly broad (fig. 266). 

In dealino- with contracted or broken feet both branches of 
the shoe should be so shaped as to correspond with the stronger 




Fig '^66 — I^ft hind shoe for horse with tmnea-iii toes. The outei' branch is seen to hi- 
wider than the inner. The dotted lines indicate the bearing of the hoof. 

or better preserved side of the hoof. The shoe will then project 
to a certain extent beyond the broken or contracted wall. It is, 
of course, often difticult or dangerous to allow the edge of the 
shoe to project at the inside of the toe or quarter, but there is no 
danger in giving extra width at the heel, because the horse 
seldom or never cuts with this part. Should the shoe hQ fitted 
to the foot in such cases, the weakened portion of the wall sus- 
tains more weioht than it would were it sound (so that a 



270 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

smaller surface has to carry a greater load), with the inevitable 
consequence of greatly aggravating any existing evil. The 
guiding principle must be to give the greatest width where the 
greatest weight falls, the shoe being regarded as the base of 
support and, therefore, requiring to be a little broader below 
that portion of the hoof which carries the greater weight. 

(c) The Fitting of Shoes for Bcqnd Work. — In addition to 
following the directions laid down in the section ' Choice of the 
Shoe,' it is necessary, in shoeing hacks, coach and race horses, 
which work at a trot or gallop, to fit the shoe everywhere as 
closely as possible. It should, therefore, represent a prolonga- 
tion of the horny wall. The inner limb requires particular 
attention, and must lie close, with its upright surface inclined 
slightly inwards. To prevent the shoe cutting, being torn off, 
or catching in obstacles, it should not exceed in length what is 
absolutely indispensable. 

(d) Fitting Shoes for Heavy draught Horses. — Heavy draught 
horses require a broad bearing surface ; consequently, the re- 
strictions as to width and length of the shoe are less imperative 
in them than in other animals. One sometimes sees hoofs which, 
without being diseased, have yet suffered severely in previous 
shoeings. The heels of the shoe should then be fashioned 
wider than the hoof, for if only the bare width is allowed the 
level tread will be destroyed, especially when toe-pieces and 
heels are employed. Heavy draught not only shortens the 
stride but tends to cause turning in of the toes, in consequence 
of which the outer limb of the shoe is generally exposed to 
heavy wear and the hoof becomes deformed. To diminish this, 
to favour regular wear of the shoe, and to give better support, 
it becomes necessary to fit the shoe fuller than usual on one 
side, especially when the toe is turned inwards, or it may even 
be necessary to form the web somewhat broader (fig. 266). 
The extent is determined by the degree to which the wall has 
become inclined, but on the outer side it is always safe to 
increase the width of the shoe until its outer edge comes 
vertically below the coronary margin. If, for example, the 
coronet is wider at the outer heel (that is, greater in circum- 
ference) than the bearing margin, the outer edge of the shoe 
from the last nail hole backwards may be kept so wide that a 
perpendicular line let fall from the coronary margin will meet 



« 



FITTING SHOES FOR HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES. 



271 



it (fig. 267). The inner web, on the other hand, must be as 
narrow as possible. The new shoe should be broader at the 
point where the old shows greatest wear and may also be 
fitted fuller, i.e., be rather more bowed outwards. The nail 
holes should be correspondingly coarser. 

This obviates the need for bending outwards the outer heeh 
The width of the web must depend on the style of tread and 
on the wear of the old shoe. Sometimes the bearing surface 
of the outer heel is not completely covered by the shoe and is 
then apt to be compressed. The remedy is to widen the web. 
We advise the adoption of a perfectly level, that is, horizontal. 




Fig. 267.— Left hind shoe for horse with turned-in toes and contraction of outer quarter 
and heel. The shoe has feather edge and (a) quarter-clip. 



bearing surface for contact with the wall, because it allows 
the foot to expand to the greatest extent, and because 
experience teaches that the hoof is thus best conserved. 
Dominik has susraested another method, which, however, in 
our opinion is unpractical, namely, to trim the bearing surface 
at right angles to the c^eneral direction of the wall and give 
the shoe a corresponding form. The upper surface of the 
shoe, therefore, in general appears concave, shoes for flat 
hoofs being most markedly seated, those for upright hoofs 
less so. The system, however, has met with little acceptance. 



272 



THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



10. The Nails. 

Of late years great progress has been made in the manu- 
facture of horse nails by machinery. The first requisite 
for making a good nail is iron of the best quality. In 
form, the nail should resemble a slender wedge, its width 
being twice its thickness. 

To meet the requirements of everyday work ten sizes are 
required. The nail should never be thicker or longer than is 
absolutely necessary, and more than one size is often required 





Fig. 268. 
Hand-made nails. 



Fig. 26i». Fig. 270. Fig. 271. 

Badly-formed 
French nails. Machine-made nail ; head and 

nail. shank defective. 



in the same hoof. Every nail makes a hole, and the smaller 
the hole the better for the hoof. Although it is indis- 
pensable to secure the shoe firmly to the hoof, this does not 
depend on the use of large nails alone, and should a strong 
nail split the wall it becomes less secure than a weak nail in a 
sound wall. It is rare that the loss of a shoe can be referred 
to the use of weak nails. Much more frequently the shoe 
does not fit or the nail holes are faulty in form, direction, or 
size. 

Hand-made nails require preparation to enable them to 
penetrate easily and in the proper direction through the horn 
wall. This preparation, termed ' pointing,* can only be satis- 



II 



CORRECT SHAPE, ETC., OF HOKSE-XAILS. 273 

factorily undertaken after ascertaining the form and couditiun 
of the wall. The nails should be smooth and regularly formed, 
but should never be hammered more than is absolutely 
necessary, for, cccteris paribus, the softer they are the better. 
The amount of hammering they should receive depends, 
therefore, to some extent on the hardness of the wall. 

As the nail is required to take a straight and not a curved 
course through the horn, its inner side, that is, the part turned 
towards the laminse, should be somewhat curved outwards, in 
order to provide against the known fact that straight nails 
always pass in a curved direction through the wall, and then 
not only fail to remain firm but are very liable to injure the 
horn and even the soft structures. 

The point is finished with a short triangular surface obliquely 
inclined to the general direction of the shank (figs. 268 and 
270). A short point causes the nail to emerge low down on 
the wall, whereas an oblique point results in it taking a longer 
course and emerging higher. No fixed rule can be given in 
regard to the niceties of pointing, because different forms of 
wall, and to some extent nails of different thickness, require 
different lengths of point. 

The point, however, should never be curved. Its outer side 
must invariably be straight, and the point, though sharp, must 
not be thin, still less excessively tine. 

At the present time machine-made nails, highly polished 
and ready for driving, are almost exclusively used. Of extreme 
regularity, they are cheaper and more easily driven, though 
less tough than the old-fashioned nail. 



11. Nailing on the Shoe. 

Before affixing the shoe the farrier places it once more in 
position to see whether it fits accurately and whether it is in 
every respect suitable. So far as nailing on is concerned, the 
shoe fits when, firstly, all the nail holes correspond in position 
to the white line, and secondly, when each hole has been 
punched with due regard to the direction of the correspond- 
ing part of the wall. Any errors must be corrected before 
nailing on commences. 



274 THE PEACTICE OF SHOEING. 

Nailino- on is intended to unite the shoe witii the hoof 
firmly and lastingly, and to effect this with the least possible 
injury to the horn and without wounding or pressing on 
sensitive structures. As each nail, on account of its wedge 
form, tends to drive the shoe towards the side to which the 
point is directed, the latter should be placed as nearly as 
possible in the centre of the nail hole ; lateral displacement 
of the shoe is then less likely to occur, and after driving two 
or more nails it is scarcely possible, the horn yielding rather 
to the nail. When slight displacement has occurred after 
driving the first nail, it can be remedied by attention in 
inserting that of the opposite side, but if two or more have 
been driven, or displacement is considerable, the nails should be 
withdrawn and redriven. 

It is of comparatively little moment which nail is first driven, 
though, as a rule, one or other of the toe nails is selected and 
the nailing on continued from this point. 

To protect the wall and avoid injuring sensitive parts, nails 
should be driven only so high as to grasp firm horn. For 
light shoes :| to 1 inch and for heavy 1^ to 1^ is sufficiently 
high, measured from the upper margin of the shoe. Many 
farriers, thinking to show greater skill or to attain greater 
security, drive all nails as high as possible without reference 
to the style of hoof or shoe. This is a grave error, for, quite 
apart from the dangers of punctures and ' binding,' the hoof is 
soon penetrated by so many nail tracks that in time it becomes 
difficult to discover a solid part. The less the horn has been 
split and injured by numerous thick or high driven nails, the 
better will be the hold of a well-fitted shoe. Special skill in 
the farrier is shown when few or no old holes can be found in 
the hoof. 

In driving, the nail is held as long as possible between the 
fingers to ensure its taking the proper line. The two principal 
indications are furnished by what the Germans term the Gang 
und Klang^ that is, the manner in which the nail advances, or 
rather the sensation its progress imparts to the workman's hand 
and the sound it gives forth. Each blow should be sufficient 
to drive it from -^ to \ inch forward. As soon as the souiid 
becomes clearer and the nail drives with more difficulty, the 
farrier knows that the point of the nail has entered the outer 



NAILING OX THE SHOE. 27 



/O 



hard sheath of the wall, and, therefore, is in the proper 
direction. A moment later he detects, by means of the second 
and third fingers of his left hand, which rest lightly on the 
wall, the point at which the nail will emerge, when he releases 
his hold on the nail, and drives it fully home. The force to 
be applied depends on the hardness of the horn and the size 
of the nail. 

Nails which penetrate f inch and still go ' soft,' or which 
cause the animal to flinch, should at once be withdrawn. Im- 
mediately the nail is driven home its point should be turned 
over. 

It looks well, and is a mark of good workmanship, for the 
nails of each side to appear at an equal height in the wall, 




llG. 272. — Cross section of a sound and well-shod hocf, showing the positiou of the nails. 
a, pedal bone ; 6, sensitive sole ; c, horny sole ; d, horn wall ; e, dark-coloured outer 
layer of do. ; /, laminal sheath ; g, nails. 

though this is by no means absolutely necessary ; certainly it 
is much more important that they should be driven so as not 
to injure the hoof. If more than six nails are driven to an 
equal height, injury may result, as the nails then come closer 
together. 

When all the nails have been driven the hoof is supported 
by the left hand, and with a few powerful blows the heads are 
sunk securely in the nail holes. The shoe is thus firmly fixed 
to the hoof, the third condition mentioned above. The nails 
being firmly driven, the pincers are held under the turned-down 
points, which are completely bent and brought in close contact 
with the hoof by light blows on each in succession. This is 
done not to cause the nails to hold more firmly in tlic hoof, but 
only to facilitate nipping off the points and clenching. 



276 



THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. 



Each nail as it emerges from the hoof causes the outer 
sheath of the wall to bulge slightly, and, therefore, in order to 
form the clench the point of the nail is removed close to the 
horn, there being little fear of its proving too short. As far 
as possible twisting or other movements which might loosen 
the nail should be avoided. 

After nipping off the points the horn below the exposed part 
of the nail is lightly rasped to form a groove, the end of the 
nail being either left of full strength or only slightly thinned. 
The clenches are then turned down with a few light blows of 
the hammer. It is sufficient if the ' turn down ' of the clench 
is the same depth as the nail is broad, or in other words, if the 
part of the clench showing is square. 

Finally, any horn projecting beyond the edge of the shoe is 
rasped away, and the edge of the hoof slightly rounded off by 
inserting the edge of the rasp between the lower margin of the 




Fig. 273. 



hoof and the upper part of the shoe, though if the fitting be 
properly performed this should only be needful at the inside of 
the toe. Under no circumstances should that part of a sound 
hoof above the clenches be rasped. The hoof is now put down, 
the old nail holes can be filled with wax if desired, or, as is 
usual, brushed over with some * dressing,' and the horse walked 
and trotted to see how he goes. 

In hoofs injured by the use of too many nails, or weak in 
horn, the nail holes must, of course, be appropriately distributed 
in the shoe, so as to take advantage of the soundest parts. 
With this precaution, and by employing high clips, even the 
worst of feet can generally be shod. In special cases ' bar ' 



FINISHING OFF THE HOOF AFTER AFFIXING SHOE. 277 

clips (giving a hold on the bar as opposed to the quarter or 
toe) have even been successfully employed. 

Occasionally a nail when driven may splinter or break, and 
portions of it remain in the hoof, defying all eflbrts at extraction 
with ordinary pincers. To meet such special cases forceps havi^ 
been invented (fig. 273) but have never come into general use. 
The forceps enable the portions to be more easily grasped and 
removed, the adjustable screw serving as a pivot. Similar 
forceps might be of value to veterinary surgeons in certain 
operations. 



13. Examination of the Hokse after Shoeing. 

The animal is first walked to see how he treads, and trotted 
to see whether he goes lame. Next the farrier should glance 
at the limbs from in front to see that the foot axis neither 
inclines inwardly nor outwardly, and from the side to see 
whether the horn of the wall is in the same line as the axis of 
the bones. A slight uprightness of the wall, however, is not 
always a disadvantage. The heels will be of a height corre- 
sponding to the formation of the hoof. Next he notes whether 
the horn of the wall runs in a straight line from the coronet 
to the bearing surface. The straighter all portions of the wall 
appear the better. 

At the same time, any defect in form and position of the 
shoe is seen. Above each nail should be a small opening, for 
this shows that the nail has been turned over of full strength 
in clenching. The clenches should be situated in sound horn, 
approximately at the same height, equally spaced, and sunk 
level with the wall. The clips and the length and breadth 
of the shoe are next noted. The toe of the hind shoe is 
broader and thicker than the quarters. The clips should be 
of equal form and size, and their length and widtli proportioned 
to the form of the hoof and to the weight upon it, as well as 
to the work required of the horse. The clip of the front shoe 
should be in the centre of tlie toe ; that of the hind a trifle 
towards the inside. When (in hind shoes) there are two 
quarter-clips, each should be at the same distance from centre 
of toe. Finally, each foot is lifted and the position of the 



278 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

nail holes Doted. The form of the shoe, the relations of the 
nail heads to the holes, and the relation of the shoe to the sole 
and frog are seen. The sole, bars, and frog should be strong, 
and the frog should project sufficiently to touch the ground. 
The shoe should take a level bearing throughout. 

In front shoes the nail holes should be distributed chiefly in 
the anterior half; in hind shoes, on the other hand, they may 
extend as far as the posterior third. The nail heads should 
till the countersinks and should either not project at all beyond 
the ground surface of the shoe or only about ^ of an inch. 
The inner and under margin of the shoe should never be sharp 
nor project towards the middle line, i.e., towards the opposite 
limb. The inner and upper margin should not touch the 
horny sole, nor should the heels lie in contact with the frog. 

After this examination, which is performed very rapidly, all 
old nail holes are filled with wax and, if not seen to before, 
the entire hoof and sole rubbed over with hoof ' dressing.' 



I 



13. Disadvantages of Shoeing. 

Shoeing has certain immediate bad results, which the farrier 
must be acquainted with, in order to be able, as far as possible, 
to minimise them. Many farriers and owners are unaware of 
how these are produced, and are satisfied to refer them to 
defects in form and length of the shoe, etc., in accordance with 
their particular, often erroneous, theories. With the knowledge, 
however, that shoeing completely alters the relations of the hoof 
to the ground, in fact places the hoof in an entirely unnatural 
condition, the reasons for injury are more easily understood. 
The body-weight is now no longer supported by the entire 
lower surface of the hoof but rests almost entirely upon the 
wall, which again rests upon the shoe. 

The following are some of the disadvantages. (1) The sole 
and frog are almost entirely relieved from the counter-pressure 
of the ground ; in consequence they lose their function, and in 
common with the posterior parts of the foot tend to shrink. 
At the same time, an excess of weight is thrown on the wall, 
checking its growth, exposing it to severe internal strain, and 
in too many cases leading to contraction and deformity. 



DISADVANTAGES OF SHOEING. 1>70 

{'2) The hoof grows continuously. When shod, however, 
wear ceases — save, perhaps, in the posterior sections, whore, in 
consequence of elasticity, a slight loss occurs — and the hoof 
becomes too long and too high. This alters the relation of the 
hoof to the limb, impedes movement, tires the animal, favours 
stumbling and falling, and may even produce disease of joints 
and tendons. 

(3) Shoeing removes the hoof from direct contact with the 
ground and, therefore, from the moisture it would otherwise 
receive. The horny capsule becomes dry, hard, and unyield- 
ing, it tends to contract and to press on the contained sofi 
structures, thus cramping action and even producing lameness. 

(4) The nail tracks weaken the hoof, and accidents, leading 
to serious results, may follow the carelessness or want of skill 
in workmen. 

All these results occur earlier and in more pronounced form 
in fore-feet, because these bear a gTeater proportion of weight 
and are more exposed to the drying process. Such changes do 
not appear, however, with like rapidity nor to a similar extent 
in all hoofs. Experience shows that when animals are severely 
worked the limbs often suffer far more tlian the hoofs in conse- 
quence of shoeing. The dogma that of 100 lame horses 90 are 
lame in the feet is unsupported by statistics. JJetween the 
years 1879 and 1891 the Veterinary School in Dresden received 
10,727 lame horses. Oi these 3333, that is 31-07 per cent., 
were lame in the feet, but as lame horses sometimes make more 
than one visit the percentage may be even lower. In the 
Practical School of Farriery at Dresden in 1884 the number of 
well-marked diseased feet noted was 6"o3 per cent. ; the per- 
centacje of horses lame in the feet was even lower. The 
Statistics of the Military School of Farriery in Berlin show 
that between 1877 and 1880 the percentage was 40-OG. In 
London, though no precise statistics are available, the 
number of horses lame in the feet is probably not higher than 
30 to 40 per cent. The diminution in cases of foot lameness 
has been very marked since the introduction of wood paving 
and machine-made nails. Speaking generally, the feet which 
most often become diseased are those attached to limbs of 
irregular conformation, lameness being due not so much to 
shoeing as to irregular distribution of weight. 



280 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

With regard to the injurious effects of shoeing it has justly 
been said, " Shoeing is an evil when ill practised." 

14. Effects upon Hoofs and Limbs peoduced by Work 
ON Paved, especially Stone-Paved, Streets. 

While draught is facilitated by the hard, smooth surface of 
modern streets, concussion and slipping are increased, and are 
productive of very serious effects in the feet and limbs of all 
draught animals. The gain, therefore, of very smooth hard 
pavements is somewhat less than would at first appear. 

So far as the preservation of the hoofs and joints is concerned 
the most favourable ground is that which admits of the shoe 
entering slightly, thus modifying the shocks incidental to rapid 
movement and the slipping produced when the foot comes to 
the ground, as well as restoring to the sole and frog the counter- 
pressure necessary for healthy growth. A soft yielding surface, 
in which the hoof sinks deeply, entails great exertion and 
rapidly produces fatigue. Very hard ground, on the other 
hand, causes shocks, slips, and falls in proportion to its rough- 
ness and hardness. Granite setts and asphalt are the most 
injurious of all pavements, because they absolutely jorevent the 
feet impressing them, because the horny sole and frog become 
functionally inactive on account of the absence of counter- 
pressure, and because the sensitive structures and joints are apt 
to become bruised and inflamed, producing a peculiar shuffling 
and unsymmetrical gait. 

While granite blocks are worse than macadam or gravel, the 
evil becomes innnensely exaggerated when the surface is much 
curved. Streets thus paved present an ever increasing danger 
for horses, a danger produced by the hardness and smoothness 
of the surface and by the faulty or diagonal setting of the 
individual stones. Slips and falls are then frequent, as owners 
in large towns know to their cost, but the disease processes 
produced in the joints, by trotting heavy horses on granite 
paved streets of excessive curvature, are less well recognised. 
In consequence of the form of the roadway the horse, where- 
ever he happen to be, almost always treads unequally, the 
outer margin of the right hoof and the inner of the left 
coming first in contact with the ground. This inequality of 



DISEASES OF FOOT AND LIMB CONSEQUENT ON SHOEINCi. '2Sl 

the ground not only causes anxiety, insecure gait, slipping, and 
falling, but more or less marked compression, if not contusion, 
of the articular surfaces of that side on which the hoof first 
comes in contact with the ground ; whilst on the opposite side 
strain of the articular ligaments occurs. When we think how 
often horses suffer in their gait by faulty preparation of the 
feet in shoeing when going on perfectly level ground, it will 
be clear that on such curved surfaces or on rough hard streets 
these strains in and about the joints must be very much 
greater. 

On soft ground the unequal tread is of little or no import- 
ance, because the part of the hoof which first touches the 
earth buries itself to a corresponding extent. On hard streets, 
however, the accommodation occurs at the expense of the joints. 
Faults in shoeing have often been blamed for the excessive 
wear of horses' legs, but the foregoing will show this view to 
be in large measure unjust. 



CHAPTER III. 



FORGING AND GUTTING. 



1. FOKGING. 



Forging is due to faulty action, in consequence of which 
the toe of the hind shoe strikes the heel or under surface of 




Fig. 274. — Right fore shoe with rounded inner edge (forging shoe). 

the fore shoe. In most cases the toe of the front shoe is 
the point struck. The sound is very unpleasant, while the 
action itself may be dangerous, as the bulbs or sole of the fore- 




FiG. 275.— Right hind shoe with two lateral toe-clips (forging shoe). 

foot or the toe wall of the hind-foot may be damaged, the shoes 
loosened, or the front shoe become locked with the hind, and 
the animal thrown down. 

282 



I 



REMEDIES FOR FORGING. 283 

The causes are eitlier faulty conforiiiatiou or defective and 
careless shoeing ; some animals only forge when tired or when 
badly driven. Horses which ' stand over/ i.e., wliose fore- 
limbs incline backwards, and whose hind-liml)s are placed 
too far under the body, or, in other words, animals with 
comparatively short bodies and long limbs, are specially pre- 
disposed. Bad shoeing is often the cause, the fore shoe being 
unduly long and the toe of the hind shoe too prominent, but 
in most cases forging is caused by the toe of the fore 
shoe being too long and the heels too low. Such a shoe 
impedes the movement of the fore-limb, the long toe delaying 
the lifting of the foot from the ground. The fore-foot, there- 
fore, remains under the horse too long, and is overtaken by 
the hind-foot. 

The remedy is to avoid making the shoe longer or wider 
than the hoof. The heels of Hat shoes should also he bevelled 
off obliquely from behind forwards, as should calkins, if used. 
When the horse strikes the lower surface of the fore shoe at 
the toe, the fault can often be prevented by rounding off or 
seatino- out the OTound surface. 

In horses that forge, the front shoe should be formed so as 
to represent merely a prolongation of the lioof. 

Tlie hind shoe should be shortened at the toe, and the 
lower anterior wall well rounded off. Quarter-clips are 
preferable to a toe-clip, and unless the horse ' goes on his 
toe,' the shoe must be fitted so that three-quarters of the 
thickness of the toe wall projects in front of the shoe. The 
nails must be well driven home, and should project as little 
as possible. The sound of forging can sometimes be pre- 
vented by inserting a fragment of leather or thick rubber 
between the shoe and hoof at the toe, so that ^ inch projects. 
This comes in contact with the front shoe, and prevents the 
objectionable noise. 

Charlier shoes in front are often a complete cure. 



284 FORGING AND CUTTING. 



SPECIAL SHOES FOE HOESES THAT FOEGE. 



f 



FULLERED HIND SHOE FOE HAENESS HOESE WHICH 
FOEGES AND WEAES WALL OF HIND-FOOT 

(Fig. 276). 

Made from £ X -|- inch iron. 

Horses that forge sometimes wear away the toe of the hind- 
foot to a very considerable extent, owing apparently to the front 
of toe of the fore foot striking that of the hind in mid-air. The 
point worn varies in position, being sometimes low down, near 
the shoe, sometimes close to the coronet. The shoe illustrated 
is intended to prevent wear close to the ground surface. A long,, 
broad, stout clip is drawn (with the face of the hammer), which 
protects the point of impact. The heels of the shoe are flat or 
may be slightly thinned. 

In this connection it may be pointed out that ' forging ' is 
not always caused in one way ; sometimes the toe of the hind- 
foot strikes the inner margin of the fore shoe, sometimes the 
toe walls of the fore-foot. It is for the latter condition that 
this shoe is intended. 



DIAMOND-TOED FULLEEED HIND SHOE FOR 
HAENESS HOESE (Fig. 277). 

Made from f^ X ^ inch iron. 

As a preventive of forging, few shoes are more efficient 
than the diamond-toed. The heels of the shoe are thinned 
down to about f of an inch. It may be laid down as a general 
principle that (hind) shoes with calkins, as compared with flat 
shoes, and flat shoes as compared with thin heeled shoes, favour 
forging. Horse-dealers often object to this shoe as drawing 
attention to a defect, and it may then be replaced by a shoe 




Fig. 276. — Fullered hind shoe for harness horse which forges and wears wall 
of hind foot. Made fi'om f x i inch iron. 




Fig. 277.— Diamond-toed fullered hind shoe (for harness horse). 
:Made from J- x i inch iron. 



[To face p. 284. 




Fig/ 278. — Diamond-toed hind shoe with 'toe spur' (for harness horse which 
forges and wears w^all of hind foot). Made from old shoes. 



To face 'p. 285.] 



SHOEING HORSES WHICH FORGE. 285 

square across the toe and clipped ou either side uf the toe, 
though this affords no protection to the toe of foot, which often 
becomes worn away. For hard-working horses nothing succeeds 
better than the diamond-toed shoe. 

Clips may be drawn at the toe (the apex of the dianiund), at 
either side of the toe, or at the toe and outside quarter. 

In preparing the foot the horn at the toe must be spared so 
that it overhangs the sides of the toe of shoe. Should the hind 
foot still overtake the fore, it is then the horn and not the shoe 
which makes contact, and the noise is materially diminished. 
The heels of the foot should be lowered, the toe left fairly 
long. 

To enable the shoe to be kept as light as possible it is often 
fashioned from steel. 



DIAMOND-TOED HIND SHOE WITH 'TOE-SPUR' EOR 
HARNESS HORSE WHICH FORGES AND WEARS 
WALL OF HIND-FOOT (Fig. 278). 

Made from old shoes. 

Occasionally the wall of the hind-foot is worn away quite 
close to the coronet, as explained in the foregoing note. The 
sensitive structures may even be exposed and bleeding result. 
The shoe illustrated is intended to prevent such injury. It 
consists of a diamond-toed shoe with an upward prolongation 
or spur accurately fitted to the contour of the wall at the 
injured spot. 

The spur is made from half-round iron f inch in width, and 
is of sufficient length to reach nearly to the coronet. It is 
' shut-on ' or welded to the shoe when the latter is com- 
pleted. The spur must be very carefully shaped to the wall, 
otherwise it increases the noise, and its appearance is very 
unsightly. 

The heels of the shoe should always be thin. Unless for 
some special reason, such as the existence of sprum of the 



L 



286 FOKGING AND CUTTING. 

subtarsal ligament or of the flexor tendons, it is considered 
desirable, by giving calkins, to relieve the tendinous structures! | 
of a portion of their load. 

A light concave fore shoe should be used in conjunction with 
the ' spur ' shoe. If the fore-feet are weak or fleshy, and a 
shoe with good cover is indispensable, it should be dished on 
the ground surface. 



2. Cutting ok Stkiking. 

A horse is said to strike or cut when the coronet, fetlock, 
or other part of the limb is touched by the foot of the opposite 
side during movement. 

A graduated series of injuries is recognised : ' brushing,' 
when the hair is roughened or soiled with mud ; ' cutting,' or 
' interfering/ when the skin is cut through, and bleeding 
ensues ; ' striking,' or ' buffing,' when the fetlock is struck 
and bruised with the flat of the opposite foot, but without a 
wound being produced. The terms, however, are employed in 
different senses by different persons and in different parts of 
the country, so that the above definitions must be regarded as 
relative only, not absolute. 

Injuries are thus produced on the inner side of the coronet, 
of the fetlock joint, or sometimes, in front limbs, as high as the 
knee. The last condition receives a special name, ' speedy- 
cuttingj.' Lameness is a common result. 

The injury may vary from mere roughening of the hair 
and slight abrasion of the epidermis to severe bruising, 
etc., causing well-marked lameness. The periosteum may 
become inflamed, leaving thickenings and exostoses ; some- 
times septic material obtains entrance, and causes violent 
inflammation of the subcutaneous connective tissue, with 
abscess. 

The causes of striking may be referred either to faulty 
shoeing of the striking foot or of the foot struck, to fatigue 
(from whatever source arising), to swellings about the coronet 
or fetlock, to the conformation of the limbs, or to the use to 
which the horse is put. Horses with well-formed limbs do 
not strike if properly shod ; those with turned-in toes occa- 



PRELIMINAEY EXAMINATION OF HORSES WHICH CUT. 2^7 

sionally strike, but horses in which the limbs appear turned in 
as high as the fetlock, and above that point recede from one 
another, very frequently strike. Bouley states that with 
turned-out toes the striking point is usually towards the back, 
with turned-in toes towards the front of the foot, but this is 
not absolutely correct. When one trace is longer than the 
other, when the horse (especially if young and fresh) becomes 
tired, and when the shoes are much worn, striking is very apt 
to occur. 

To minimise or prevent this fault, the examination of 
the limbs, the gait, and the slioeing, as before indicated, must 




Fig. 279. — Examination of horse that strikes. The animal shown has two defects : its 
feet are too closely placed and it crosses the feet when moving. , 



be thorough (fig. 279). Four chief points have to be borne 
in view : the formation of the limbs, tlie inclination of 
the fetlock joint of the limb which is struck, the style of 
tread, and the part which inflicts the injury. The more 
closely the fetlock joint approaches the centre of the bod}', 
the less the ' clearance,' and, consequently, the greater the 
chance of striking. This is usually produced l)y too low 
an inner wall ; in such case the cause is to be sought in 
the foot which is struck. It must always be remembered, 
however, that when the limb is deformed, i.e., when the toe is 
turned in or out, the foot will not be of normal shape, 
and to attempt to render it so is a grave error which will 



288 



FORGING AND CUTTING. 



probably exaggerate the condition. An uneven tread is apt 
to result in an irregular method of advancing the foot ; this 
favours striking. Before proceeding to special measures, it is 
generally desirable to try the effect of a perfectly flat shoe 
and level bearing. In the majority of cases this will stop 
cutting. The point which strikes can usually be precisely 
located, as it is either whitish or smooth, or at least free 
of dirt; sometimes it is reddened with blood. In the ab- 
sence of such indication, the hoof or the point struck may 
be whitened, and the horse trotted. The colouring matter 
will then be transferred from the hoof to the fetlock, or vice 





Fig. 280.— Cutting shoe, ground surface. 



Fig. 281.— Cutting shoe, foot surface. 



mrsa, and the exact points which come in contact clearly 
indicated. 

When the cause is too broad a hoof, projecting clenches, 
twisting of the shoe on the foot, it is only necessary to 
amend the shoeing, but when faulty conformation is in 
question, the striking point must be discovered, the hoof 
diminished in size, its bearing surface altered, the shoe 
opposite it straightened and so applied that it lies well 
within the margin of the hoof. The hoof should project 
to the extent of about one-third the thickness of the 
wall. When striking is excessive, it may be necessary to 
use a shoe holed and nailed only on one side (' blind-sided 
shoe '). 

' Anti-cutting ' shoes, or shoes in which the inner limb is 
diminished in width and deepened, forming a ' wedge heel ' 



REMEDIES FOR STRIKING AND CUTTING, 



289 



(fig. 282), are useful where the toe is turned in, especially if 
the inner wall of the foot cannot be induced to grow sufficiently 
fast in spite of careful attention. The greater depth lifts the 
otherwise displaced hoof into its proper position. In each 





Fig. 282.— Cutting shoe for left hiud-foot. 
a, position of clip. The dotted line shows 
the outline of the wall of the hoof. 



Fig. 283.— Cutting shoe for right fore- 
foot, holed on one side only. 



a- — 




Fig. 284.— Cutting shoe (right hind) for horse that cuts with the toe. a, quarter-clip. 



case the shoe should be so fitted that the hoof overlaps 
slightly at the striking part. 

When the horse strikes with the inner surface of the wall, 
and when, consequently, injury is apt to occur from the 
clenches projecting as the shoes wear out, shoes holed only 
on one side are employed (figs. 282 and 283) both in front 
and behind. The style of tread must determine whether 

T 



290 



FORGING AND CUTTING. 



such shoes should be made with low heels or not It seems 
plain, however, that when a horse with turned-in toes strikes 
himself in spite of being shod with anti-brushing shoes, the 
heels are either too high or altogether harmful. 

For horses with turned-out toes anti-cutting shoes are 
seldom of much benefit. These animals usually cut with the 
inner part of the toe or quarter close to the toe ; sometimes 
with the heel. Consequently, the shoe, whether provided 
with heels or not, should have a straight margin without nail 
holes, should be very narrow and very carefully rounded 
off in a downward direction at the striking point (fig. 284). 
The hoof should also extend beyond the shoe. The other 
parts of the inner margin of the shoe may, and sometimes 




Fig. 285. — Shoes for horse that turns the toes out. a, the part of hoof that strikes ; 
6, the inner limb of shoe is seen to be longer a,hd broader than the outer. 



even must, be wider than the hoof at the heels. It is some- 
times advisable to make the inner heel higher than the 
outer. 

The width of the outer branch also requires special attention ; 
towards the heel it should be narrow and closely follow the 
direction of the wall, while it must be kept short, for a long, 
projecting outer heel favours the inward thrusting of the 
fetlock joint by throwing the weight on the inner half of' 
the hoof. It thus facilitates striking. It need scarcely 
be remarked that the clenches should sit close without 
projecting. 



FITTING SHOES FOR HORSES THAT CUT. 291 

To prevent the shoe shifting its position a side clip (a) 
must be fitted. Neither the shoe nor the hoof should ex- 
hibit any sharp or projecting edges on the inner side, and 
any prominent nail heads must be removed. The remedies 
for striking produced by local swellings, weakness, over- 
work, or unequal length of the traces are self-apparent. In 
some cases shoeing can only diminish striking and the in- 
jured part must always be protected by a well-fitting boot. 
Other means of protection are the insertion of a fragment 
of leather between shoe and hoof which projects to the ex- 
tent of -i- or ^ inch and is kept well greased. The contact 
of the leather with the part struck is less injurious than 
that of the hoof or shoe. Special pads are made for this 
purpose, consisting of a small, elongated, rounded portion 
and a flattened expansion, through which the nails are 
driven. The rounded part projects at the sides of the foot 
and serves the same purpose as the leather. Thick rubber 
rings are occasionally used, being slipped over the hoof 
and allowed to rest just below the fetlock. Yorkshire boots 
(of doubled blanket) are also employed as temporary pro- 
tection. 

Delperier recently described a very ingenious way of 
preventing the horse cutting. He used gaiters extending 
from the upper part of the coronet to below the knee, 
and found that, by tightly lacing these, the action of the 
limb was somewhat limited and that marked ahdiccfion 
occurred. His experiments extended over two years, and 
he was able by this method to completely prevent cutting 
in a horse which had resisted all other methods of treat- 
ment. 

The American weighted shoe is sometimes of value, and is 
certainly worth a trial in inveterate cases. 

A last method is to insert in the hollow of the heel a 
moderate sized pad fixed in position by means of a strap. 
This limits the flexion of the limb in a similar way to 
Delperier's gaiter and induces a degree of abduction pro- 
portioned to the amount of interference with flexion. A 
very little difference in movement is sufficient to entirely 
prevent injury, and this system has been favourably reported 
t , on by a large number of observers. The pad does not cause 



292 FOKGING AND CUTTING. 

the animal to appear lame or to go unevenly, as the opposite 
limb is moved in sympathy with the one to which it is 

applied. 

The tendency to strike is diminished in direct proportion to 

the simplicity and lightness of the shoe. 




Fig. 286. - -Fullered feather-edged hind shoe (with two calkins). 
Made from | x ^ inch iron. 




Fig. 287.— Feather-edged stamped hind shoe (with two nails inside toe). 
^Fade from | x ^ inch iron. 

To face p. 293.] 



CARRIAGE HORSE SHOES (HIND) FOR HORSES THAT CUT. 293 



SPECIAL SHOES FOE HOESES THAT CUT. 

FULLERED FEATHER-EDGED HIND SHOE 
(WITH TWO CALKINS) (Fig. 286).* 

Made of J X -^ inch iron. 

This is a useful shoe for carriage horses used on luacadam 
roads, and for horses which slip with their hind-feet, and yet 
require a feather- edged shoe. It gives the horse better foothold 
and more confidence in ooino-. The calkins should be rather 
low and strong. In the shoe illustrated they are 1^ inches in 
height. The clips are placed on either side of the toe. 



FEATHER-EDGED STAMPED HIND SHOE (WITH 
TWO NAILS INSIDE TOE) (Fig. 287). 

Made from -|- X ^ inch iron. 

This shoe is much used in London. It is ' knocked up ' 
inside, has a calkin on the outside heel, and is slipped at the 
toe and outside quarter. 

Although useful as a stock shoe for carriage horses, it has 
no special advantage, and the inside limb presenting so narrow 
a bearing surface for the foot, soon becomes imbedded in the 
horn. 

'' Great difficulty has been found in drawing a sharp line of demarcation 
between shoes which may properly be regarded as of every-day use and those 
which should be relegated to special sections, such as 'cutting and forging.' 
The arrangement adopted is far from perfect, but, in face of the great practical 
difficulties to be encountered, the reader's forbearance is relied on. 



294 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. 



PAETIALLY FEATHEE-EDGED EULLEEED 
HIND SHOE (Fig. 288). 

Made from f X 4- inch iron. 

For harness or riding horses which have not much horn at 
the toe, or which cut towards the hack of the inside heel of 
shoe and require to be clipped on either side of the toe, this 
shoe has been designed. 

Two nail holes are placed in a short length of fullering close 
to the inside toe. The calkin on the outside heel gives a 
certain amount of hold on slippery ground. The foot surface- 
of the inside limb is considerably greater than in the ordinary 
feather-edged shoe, and the shoe is therefore less likely to sink 
into the foot. 



PAETIALLY-FULLEEED FEATHEE-EDGED 
HIND SHOE (Fig. 289). 

Made from f X ^ inch iron. 

This shoe is intended for harness or riding horses which cut 
badly at the inside toe. There are two clips, one at the outside 
toe and another at the inside heel. This disposition allows the 
inside toe to be fitted very fine. The inside clip is drawn on 
the corner of the anvil and from the inside of the shoe, so that 
no clip hole appears on the part of shoe opposite the injured 
limb ; this part of the shoe, on the contrary, presenting a per-' 
fectly plane surface. The shoe is, in fact, not of sufficient 
substance at this point to allow of a clip being drawn in the 
ordinary way. 

The above method of drawing a clip is worthy of special 
notice, as such inside clips are often very useful when the horse 
breaks the inside nail of his hind shoes or drives the shoe 
outwards. 




Fig. 288. — Partially feather-edged fullered hind shoe. Made from f x ^ 

inch iron. 




Fig. 289.— Partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe. Made from | x § 

inch iron. 

\_Tofacep. 294. 




Fig. 290. — Fullered hind shoe, ' set ' inside. Made from f square iron. 




Fig. 291. — Side view of above special hind shoe for horse which cuts his 

fetlocks. 
To face 'p. 295.] 



CARKTAGE HORSE SHOES (HIND) FOR CUTTING. 205 



FULLERED HIND SHOE, 'SET' INSIDE 
(Figs. 290, 291). 

Made from -| square iron. 

This is really a feather- edged hind shoe which can be nailed 
inside. When a horse is deficient in horn at the toe, or the 
toe cannot be utilised and the horse cuts his fetlocks badly, this 
shoe is very useful. Though difficult to make and not commonly 
used, it has been subjected to a thorough practical test and 
found satisfactory. 

The inside of the shoe is drawn very much like that of an 
ordinary feather-edged shoe ; it is then turned on the beak iron 
of the anvil and the ' set ' tool applied. When sufficient 
' ledge ' is obtained, the part is fullered and the nail holes 
stamped. 

The shoe has a calkin outside of equal height with the in- 
side feather-edge and is clipped at either side of the toe. It is 
suitable for hacks or for harness horses. 



296 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 



FULLEEED SEATED FEATHEE-EDGED FOEE SHOE. 
FOE HAENESS OE EIDING HOESE (Fig. 292). 

Made from -§- X ^ inch iron. 

Where a horse cuts close to the inside toe and has a 
tendency to cast his shoes, the use of this shoe is indicated. 
Two nails inside give greater security than one, and the clip 
provided at the outside quarter prevents the shoe being driven 
in, across the foot, as is apt to occur with horses which go 
much on the outside. The quarter clip also prevents the 
farrier placing the shoe ' across the foot ' in nailing-on. 

All shoes of this class should be lightly chamfered or 
bevelled along the outer, lower border of the inside limb. 

It will be noted that the shoe has two clips, one at the toe 
and one at the outer quarter. 



FULLEEED SEATED FEATHEE-EDGED FOEE SHOE 

(Fig. 293). 

Made from 1-|- X -J- hwh. 

On account of its being so frequently employed, it has been 
thought desirable to figure this shoe, but its use cannot be 
recommended. The inside quarter and heel are drawn down 
almost to vanishing point. The foot surface is narrow, and the 
shoe soon becomes embedded in the foot, bruising the sensitive 
structures and producing corns. 




Fig. 292. — Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe. For harness or riding 
Made from | x i inch iron. 




Fig. 293. — Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe, ^tade from li x ^V 

inch iron. 



[To face p. 296. 




Fig. 294. — Fullered feather- edged concave fore shoe. ]\Iade from f x | 

inch iron. 




Fig. 295. — Fullered hind shoe for hack. Made from # x i inch iron. 



To face -p, 297.] 



* 



RACING AND HACK SHOES FOR CUTTING, FORGING, ETC. 297 



FULLERED FEATHER-EDGE CONCAVE FORE SHOE 

(Fig. 294). 

3Iade from ^ x |r i7ic7h iron. 

This is a very Kglit pattern shoe, suitable for a steeplechase 
horse that requires a feather-edged shoe, or for a hunter which 
wears little and has a fairly strong foot. The lightness of the 
shoe is, in itself, a powerful factor in lessening the chance of 
a horse cutting ; and the toe-nail being placed well forward and 
close to the clip, the shoe can be fitted ' fine ' at the inside toe. 

If made of steel this shoe often cures cases where a horse 
both ' cuts ' and ' forges.' 

It may even be used for riding and harness horses with 
strong feet. 



FULLERED HIND SHOE FOR HACK (Fig. 295). 
Made from ^ x -i- inch iron . 

This shoe is for cases where it becomes necessary to nail the 
shoe back at the inside heel, as when the toe is defective from 
having been worn away by ' forging,' or when the horse cuts at 
the inside toe, so that nails either cannot be inserted at that 
point, or the fitting has to be so very ' fine ' that some other 
device seems preferable. The outside calkin is perhaps not an 
advantage. Calkins seem to displace the centre of gravity of 
the body in a forward direction or, in simple language, throw 
the weight of the body further forward ; hence the offending 
foot is able to reach further. A¥hether the reader accept this 
explanation or not, it is at least certain that some horses which 
forge when shod with calkins cease to do so when shod fiat 
(behind). Of course flat shoes should not be used when the 
horse suffei-s from curb, etc. 

Clips are placed at the outside toe and inside heel. The 
three inside nail-holes can, if preferred, be stamped without 
fullering. 



298 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 

CONCAVE FEATHEE-EDGED HIND SHOE 
PAETIALLY FULLEEED (Fig. 296). 

Made in concave tool from old shoes or from -|- X -J- inch iron. 

This shoe has the hiside edge chamfered down, is level on 
the ground surface, and has only one nail hole, stamped well 
forward close to the toe-clip. The clips are not shown in 
drawing, but are usually drawn at the toe and outside quarter, 
the shoe being intended for use when the horse cuts badly. 
In exceptional cases the shoe may be cut down to three 
quarters or even less inside. 

Assuming that the horse cuts to this degree, only one nail 
can be placed inside, and even then special care is required to 
see that the nail is well hammered home, the clench well 
drawn, and the head of the nail rasped off flush with the inside 
of the shoe (i.e., the surface opposed to the injured fetlock). 
The nail hole must not be back-pritchelled, or only very slightly 
so, as this is a frequent cause of clenches 'rising' when the 
shoes become worn. 

As a very great strain falls on the single nail, it is often 
advisable to draw a clip at the inside heel, in addition to those 
at the toe and outside quarter. In this position the clip 
relieves the single nail of all lateral or ' shearing ' stress, and is 
a natural advantage. The toe of the foot may be allowed ta 
overhang that of the shoe. 

It may not be out of place to repeat that the inside margin 
of shoe opposite the fetlock, which is struck, must be well 
chamfered down, as shown. 

CONCAVE PAETIALLY-FULLEEED FEATHEE-EDGED 
HIND SHOE (Fig. 297). 

Made in concave tool from old shoes, or from |- X ^ inch iron. 

To ignore this shoe might be looked upon as an oversight^ 
but although it is included its general use cannot be recom- 
mended. The shoe is clipped at either side of the toe ; has a 
calkin on the outside, and an inside feather-edge of equal 
height with the calkin. 




Fia. 296. — Concave feather-edged hind shoe, partially fullered Made in 
concave tool, from old shoes or from f x ^ inch iron. 




Fio. 297. — Concave partially -fullered feather-edged hind shoe. Made in concave 
tool from old shoes or from f x ^ inch iron. 

{To face p. 298. 




Fig. 298. — Feather-edged fullered concave fore shoe. Made in concave tool 
from J X ^ inch iron or steel. 




Fig. 299. — Concave three-quarter hind shoe. Made in concave tool from 

f X ^ inch iron. 

To face p. 299.] 



1 



RACING AND HACK SHOES FOR SEYEKE CASES OF CUTTING. 299 

The objections to it are, the narrowness of its inside foot 
surface, which becomes imbedded in the foot after two or three 
weeks' wear, and may loosen the wall at the inside quarter or 
heel, and the fact that, as the fullering extends round the 
toe, a sharp knife-like edge is produced capable of inflicting 
very severe injury on the heel of the fore-foot in case of the 
horse overreaching. 



FEATHER-EDGED EULLEEED CONCAVE 
FOEE SHOE (Fig. 298). 

Made in concave tool from ^ X :^ incli iron or steel. 

This shoe, being very light, is suitable for steeplechasere, 
or light-weight hunters, which are exercised on grass. The 
inside is hammered or chamfered down to a very narrow 
ground surface, although the foot surface of the inside of shoe 
is preserved of equal or, if anything, of greater width than 
that of the outside. The inside of shoe exhibits one nail hole 
only, and is fitted very fine. Sometimes it is possible to stamp 
a second nail hole, but the nail heads must then be rasped off 
flush after nailing on the shoe. 

The above is a useful shoe for horses which forge badly 
and cut the opposite leg. If the horse is used on the road, the 
shoe must be of steel. The fullering is produced by a ridge in 
the groove of the concave tool. 



« 



CONCAVE THKEE-QUAETER HIND SHOE 

(Fig. 299). 

Made in concave tool from -f X -i- inch iron. 

In some cases of cutting, as, for instance, when the cutting 
part is near the heel, this shoe is very effective. Having no 
nail holes at the toe, it can also be well ' set-back ' at that 
point, in the event of the horse overreaching, and on account of 



300 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. 



1 



the inside heel being cut off, it may be advantageously used for 
a horse with inside false quarter. 

Being most frequently used for hunters which are always on 
soft ground, the calkin is a distinct advantage ; but when ani- 
mals thus shod are worked on hard roads, there is a tendency 
to strain the joints, as the bearing is uneven. 

As shown by the illustration, the clips are on either side of 
the toe. 



THREE-QUAETER PARTIALLY FULLERED 
HIND SHOE (Fig. 300). 

Made from old shoes, steel, or |: X -J- inch iron. 

Many horses which otherwise cut badly can be kept at work 
by using this shoe. 

As the fullering stops short of the outside toe nail-hole, 
both toe nail-holes can be stamped, and the inner one can be 
placed well forward, while a strong clip can also be drawn. 
The position of the clips is sufficiently indicated in the drawing. 
The inside limb of shoe is gradually thinned down to about a 
quarter of an inch. The inner margin of the shoe (opposite 
the part struck) is chamfered down and hot rasped, so as to 
present a rounded surface. The inside toe of the shoe must be 
fitted very fine. 

In extreme cases of cutting, the shoe can be cut off close 
behind the inner nail hole. The disadvantages of this shoe are 
that, as the position of the inner nail hole cannot be changed, 
the nail holes come in precisely the same spot, time after time, 
when shoeing ; if the feet are weak and brittle, this constitutes 
a grave drawback. It is perhaps scarcely needful to point out 
that to place the inner nail hole closer to the toe would inter- 
fere with drawing the clip, while to place it farther back would 
probably result in the animal again cutting. 




¥m. 300.— Three-quarter partially fullered hind shoe. Made from old shoes, 

steel, or f X i inch iron. 



[ To face p. '600. 



CHAPTER IV. 

LEATHER AND RUBBER SOLES, ETC". 

These soles are either nailed on, and, therefore, remain Id 
position until the next shoeing, or are slipped in and out 
between the limbs of the shoe. 

Until comparatively recently only leather soles were in use, 
the object being to protect weak soles or diminish the pressure 
of the shoe on the hoof, which had been either excessively 
worn away or thinned with the knife. Rubber pads are quite 
a modern production. Following rubber came a series of 
materials, such as cork, straw, tarred rope, felt, bast, hemp, 
wood fibre, etc. Whatever the nature of the material, the 
purpose is to diminish or remove the disadvantages resulting 
from shoeing, especially in horses used on hard pavements. 
As one such contrivance has little advantacje over another, 
they may here be considered in general. All, to a greater or 
less extent, (1) prevent slipping and falling on smooth pave- 
ments, (2) check desiccation of the sole, (3) prevent balling of 
snow in the foot, (4) diminish concussion, (5) favour expansion 
of the foot, and (6) guard against picking up nails. 

Leather pads transmit to the sole, frog, and bars some of the 
weight which would otherwise fall on the wall and increase the 
functional activity of these parts. In a degree, therefore, they 
restore the hoof to the normal unshod condition. Remember- 
ing that many diseased conditions, like contracted hoof, sand- 
crack of the wall or bars, corns, etc., are ameliorated, if not 
cured, by removing the shoes and turning the horse out, the 
improvement produced by artificial soles is more easily under- 
stood. When used with suitable shoes they provide a means 
not only of arresting the bad results of shoeing, but also of 
curing foot diseases while allowing the animal to work. 
Expansion of the hoof follows their use. Nevertheless, they 



302 LEATHER AND RUBBER SOLES, ETC. 

have their disadvantages. Occasionally they cause thrush, 
bruising of the sole, and, in some instances, they tend to loosen 
the shoe. When the sole is permanently fixed in position, 
thrush is comparatively common and cannot always be pre- 
vented even by using antiseptics or tar dressings. Leather 
pads, therefore, should only be used when the horse works on 
hard pavements. The following resum4 is far from exhaustive, 
but contains a description of the pads most frequently used. 

1. Leather Soles 

are formed of leather from ^ to ^^q inch in thickness. The 
hoof surface of the shoe is laid on a square piece of this, the 
outer margin and the recess for the clip marked, and the sole 
cut out. As the sole raises the hoof and renders it somewhat 
wider, the shoe must be fashioned to correspond. The clips 
should be drawn rather longer than usual, the exact extra 
length being the thickness of the leather used. The leather of 
the sole is fastened to the heel of the shoe by means of a 
* stub.* The leather sole itself is of comparatively little 
service, but becomes much more effective when the space 
between it and the horny sole is filled with tow or similar 
elastic material, which transmits to the sole a certain amount 
of the pressure produced during motion. The tow may be 
locally distributed, any portion of the hoof which is painful 
being left uncovered ; other parts may be caused to take more 
pressure. Leather soles can be used both for ordinary and bar 
shoes, even when the frog is affected with thrush. In such 
case, all loose parts are removed from the diseased frog, which 
is dressed with carbolic solution, smeared with Stockholm 
(wood) tar or Venice turpentine, so as to protect the frog from 
the air and from septic matter, and the space completely 
filled with tampons of tow. It is only necessary to use suffi- 
cient tow to exercise moderate pressure on the sole. With the 
exception of cases of canker and exposure of the sensitive 
structures of the sole, the leather sole with stopping may be 
used with advantage in all hoof diseases. 

Disadvantages. — The most frequent accident is the entrance 
of sand, etc., between the horn and leather, causing bruised 
sole. When the stopping is carefully inserted, however, this 



INDIA-RUBBER FROG PADS. 



303 



need not be feared. Drying of the leather sole can be pre- 
vented by dressing the upper surface with tar or grease. In 
treating narrow or contracted hoofs it is well every few days 
to immerse the entire hoof in a bucket of water so as to 
thoroughly moisten the horn. Afterwards the sole itself may 
be rubbed with some form of hoof dressing. 

2. Rubber Pads on Leather. 

The leather used is similar to the foregoing, but on it is sewn, 
or more frequently cemented, a mass of rubber of varying 
shape. In the case of fig. 301 the rubber is about f inch 
and in fig. 302 about |- inch in thickness. In the sole shown 
in fig. 301 the rubber corresponds in size to the width of the 
posterior third of the hoof. The heels of the shoe are, of 





Fig. 301. — Rubber bar pad on leather. 



Fig. 302. — Rubber frog pad on leather. 



course, shortened. The pad shown in fig. 302 is used with an 
ordinary flat shoe. As the rubber projects considerably the 
shoe should be made a little thicker than usual, though to act 
most effectually the rubber must project -|- inch beneath the shoe. 
The pad shown in fig. 302 is much more easily and rapidly 
fixed than that shown in fig. 301. These pads are useful both 
for sound and for many diseased hoofs, in which they may 
advantageously be used where a leather sole would otherwise 
be applied, while at the same time they prevent slipping. 
They are only fully effectual when used in conjunction with a 
properly applied stopping of tow and tar. 



304 



LEATHER AND RUBBER SOLES, ETC. 



3. DowNiE & Harris's Kubber Pad with Frog Cleft. 

This is one of the oldest rubber pads. It is fixed to the 
shoe and forms a cushion, at the same time transmitting 
pressure to the sole and bars. Towards the frog cleft (h) it is 
depressed and becomes thinner (a). The margins of the frog 
cleft should lie in the lateral furrows of the frog. The pad 
prevents concussion, diminishes slipping, and obviates balling 
of snow. It can be worn continuously and improves many 




I+'IG. 302 A.— Downie's rubber pad. a, concave portion ; b, incision for the reception of 
the frog ; c, outer margin on which the Avail rests. 

(defective) feet. For convex soles, however, it is disadvantage- 
ous, and in very oblique hoofs there is difficulty in applying it. 
In fitting it the lateral furrows of the frog should be 
moderately cut out, especially towards the heel, and to make it 
correspond to the sole the pad must sometimes be trimmed with 
the knife. The shoe should be moderately strong and not 
excessively seated out, the inner upper border being well rounded 
off. At the toe the pad should not project below the ground 
surface of the shoe, but at the heels it may extend -|- inch 
lower. In driving the nails the cushion part should be pressed 
against the inner margin of the shoe by the thumb of the left 
hand, so as to ensure its lying correctly. The disadvantages 
of using this pad are the occasional loosening of the shoe and 
the entrance of sand, which leads to bruising of the sole. 



hartmann's removable rubber pad. 305 



4. Hartmann's Eemovable Eubber Pad. 

This consists of an oval thick mass of rubber, correspond- 
ing in outline to the inner border of the shoe. The surface 
opposed to the hoof is rounded and exhibits at the back a 
depression for the reception of the frog ; the under surface has 
two long shallow depressions. At the front and on either side 
a steel tongue projects, which slips into the space between the 
sole and seated portion of the shoe and liolds the pad in position. 

The shoe must be well seated, and the heels converge suffi- 
ciently to prevent the pad slipping out behind. Special tongs 
(fig. 302 b) are used for inserting and removing the pad, which 




Fig. 302 b.— Showing method of inserting Hartmann's pad, and use of tongs. 

is bent on itself, placed in position, and fastened by allowing 
the little steel projections to slip between the shoe and the 
hoof. The tougs are then relaxed and removed, the pad re- 
covers its shape, thrusting the steel tongues well under the 
shoe. 

This pad is useful in winter, when it prevents the balling of 
snow very effectually, and in summer for horses working at 
high speed on hard roads. 

It can be used for all horses with concave soles, but when 
the sole is flat it is of little value, if not positively injurious, 
while it is difficult to fit to the foot, because the shoe must 
not only fit the margin of the hoof but that of the pad in 
addition, while the nail holes cannot, of course, be displaced. 

u 



sm: 



I.EATHER AND RUBBER SOLES, ETC. 



The more irregular, therefore, the form of the hoof the more 
difificult does fitting become. 

Whether the horse will go well or badly depends upon the 
lit of the pad. The sole will not bear strong and continued 
pressure, and, therefore, while the back of the pad may project 
slightly below the shoe, the toe should always be above its 
ground surface, and even then should yield a little under the 
pressure of the finger. To secure this, the pad when first 
applied must be fitted to the concavity of the sole by rasping 



•!■•]. 




Fig. 303. —Hoof surface of shoe with Hartmanns pad inserted. 



' : i ' I , ,' 



or j paring. The hoof is prepared as usual, except that the 
point of the frog must not be left too high. After fastening 
the shoe with a couple of nails the pad is inserted, and if 
found to fit the nailing on is completed as usual. 

Twenty different sizes are made, ten in rounded and ten in 
^ong forms. For hind-feet ten different sizes are also manu- 
factured, so that there should seldom be much difficulty in 
^tting the foot. The pad should always be long enough to 

cover the limbs of the frocj. 

'•■•"■■ . . . 

J /The time it will wear varies according to the horse's work. 

Jft may serve for as many as four shoeings. As soon as the 

^qrseis Iprought home the pads should be removed and washed. 



HOPE AND STRAW J»ADS. 



OK) i. 



If left on the feet they favour thrush, bruising of the sole, and 
other mischief. 

These pads are contra-indicated when there is extensive 
disease in the white line. They should then be replaced by 
leather soles. They should never be used in the treatment of 
diseases of the hoof, except under the advice of a veterinary 
surgeon. Similar pads, provided on the ground surface with 
a number of depressions and on the lioof surface with a layer 
of spongy rubber, are made by Priest & Co., Oxford Street, W. 
They are termed anti-concussion pads. 

5. Koj'E Pads (fixed) 

consist of a leather sole covered on the hoof surface witli thick 
felt and on the ground surface with a flat coil of rope arranged 
to form a pad resembling Hartmami's. They are inserted in 
the same way. On moist, greasy asphalt, wood, or stone 
pavements these are more effectual against slipping than 
Hartmann's, on account of their picking up sand and always 
presenting a rough surface. They are not removed in the 
stable. 

6. Stkaw Pads 

were invented by a German military veterinar}' surgeon, 
Eeinicke. They consist of straw plaited into a flat mass, corre- 




[ Fk;. 304.— Special slioe for straw or fibre pad. KiG. ;iU5.~ l^pper surface of above shoe. 

spending in shape to the space enclosed by the shoe. The 
shoe used with them is well seated out, and provided with 



308 LEATHER AND KUBBEE PADS, ETC. 

three projections on its inner margin, while the heels are 
turned inwards at the ends, like a broken or interrupted bar 
shoe. Before insertion, the straw is moistened, and the horny 
sole smeared with tar to prevent thrush. To ensure it re- 
maining in position, the pad should be so large that its margin 
extends between the hoof and shoe. It has the same advan- 
tages as the rope pad, and is very cheap — in fact, it can be 
made by the groom. Its disadvantages are : the rapidity with 
which it wears out on rough hard ground, and the fact that in 
thrushy feet its use aggravates the disease, despite the previous 
use of tar or other disinfectant. Pads formed of wood fibre or 
hemp are somewhat more durable, but otherwise have no 
special advantages over straw pads. 

7. Cork Pads 

are made by cutting from a sheet of cork about ^ inch thick 
a piece corresponding in size to the outline of the seated 
portion of the shoe. The piece is then pared so as to fit the 
surface of the sole, and the outer and under margin cut away, 
corresponding to the seating of the shoe. After being softened 
in hot water, the mass of cork is forced into position between 
the limbs of the shoe. It is not necessary for the heels to be 
so incurved as when using straw pads, nor for the cork to 
enter so far under the shoe. Being at first soft, it moulds 
itself to the inner margin of the shoe. 

The cork pad is light, cheap, and durable ; sometimes, how- 
ever, it induces thrush. 

8. Pelt Pads. 

Felt, which on account of its soft, elastic nature has been 
largely employed, as an upper layer, in various forms of pad for 
tender feet, and even as a material for the fabrication of entire 
pads, does not, in general, deserve the praise it has received. 
It is too yielding, and, therefore, does not always prevent pressure 
by the shoe. It rubs through at the heels, takes up too much 
water, and in oblique hoofs renders the sole soft. Further, its 
yielding soon causes the shoe to become loose. In all these 
respects it is much inferior to leather. If it is intended merely to 



PADS OF ELASTIC CEMENT AND OF FELT. 309 

prevent shock, felt should be employed in conjunction with 
leather. 

9. Pads of Elastic Cement. 

In this case the shoe is of the ordinary variety, the pad 
being inserted after shoeing is complete. The hoof is first 
cleansed and disinfected. The elastic cement is melted in u 
ladle over a slow fire, until it forms a thick fluid. It is then 
smeared over the entire surface of the sole with an iron 
spatula, and well pressed in between the seating of the slioe 
and the hoof. When sufficient has been inserted, the cement 
is cooled in water, or the hoof let down, though in such case 
the ground must be level and moist, so that the cement shall 
not stick to it. Instead of being melted in a ladle, the 
cement may be softened in water until ductile, in which con- 
dition it is pressed into the hoof. 

Artificial soles of elastic cement appear to succeed very 
well, the upper surface necessarily corresponding exactly in 
shape to the sole, of which it is a plastic reproduction. The 
counter-pressure of the ground is, therefore, evenly transmitted 
to the entire sole. 

The frog can be covered or left exposed. At the toe the 
ground surface of the shoe should be about ^ inch deeper than 
the inserted cement, so that the latter does not touch the 
ground when the animal stands on a level surface.. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE SHOEING OF MULES AND ASSES. 



Mules and asses used on IimixI roads, either in draught or 
under the saddle, must necessarily be shod. In these animals ; 
the formation and functions of the hoof are precisely similar to. 
those of the horse, the form alone differing somewhat. The 
mule's hoof is long and narrow, round at the toe, possesses 
somewhat upright quarters and a concave sole. In the ass the, 
elongated form is still more pronounced. The horn of the wall 
is thick, the entire frog well developed, especially in "its 






Kra. 306. — Hind-foot of ass, 
seen from beloAv. 



t'iG. 307.— Fore-foot of ass, 
seen from below. 



Fig. 308.— Fore-foot of mule, 
seen from below. 



limbs, and, therefore, the posterior portion of the hoof is com- 
paratively wide (see fig. 306). In both animals the horn is 
very tough. In proportion to the size of the hoof, and com- 
pared with small equine hoofs, the thickness of the wall in 
mules and asses is very marked. In mules the hoof at the 
toe is from -| inch to J inch, at the quarters J^ inch less, and 
at the heels about J inch in thickness. In asses the thickness 



MUO: SHOES. 311 

at the toe is ^ inch to -} inch, at the quarters ^^^ inch to 
•J- inch, and at the heels ^ inch to J inch. 

The shoes differ from those of the horse in respect of 
the number and disposition of the nail holes, and in being 
lighter and less thick. In the ass the nail holes need not 
exceed four, and in the mule five to six in number. 

As the wall is very hard and tough, the nails employed are 
short, but fairly stout. Ordinary horse nails are rather weak 
in the shank, and, though often used, are liable Lu double up 
when beins^ driven, if used for donkeys or mules. 



CHAPTEE VI. 

CAEE OF THE HOOF. 

The ideas entertained by many owners, and especially by 
farriers and coachmen, as to the proper treatment of the hoof, 
are usually so peculiar, and their practice is attended by such 
disastrous results, that a few remarks on the care of the hoof 
may not be superfluous. The primary objects should be to 
retain the natural form of the hoof, and to keep the horn 
sound and elastic. 

(a) Teeatment of Unshod Hoofs. 

The treatment of the foal's hoof is of considerable import- 
ance. The most beneficial effects are obtained by free exercise 
on dry but not stony ground. The hoofs being thus worn 
down, it is only occasionally necessary to note whether wear is 
regular, and should it not be so, to remove irregularities with 
the rasp. 

When foals are confined to the stable this regular wear 
ceases, the hoof becomes distorted, the wall growing too long, 
becoming bent, or at times even separated, from subjacent 
structures. Weak heels tend to bend inwards and to diminish 
in width. The toe becomes elongated, rendering the fetlock 
too sloping, the tread unsafe, and the gait stumbling. It should, 
therefore, be shortened from time to time. In-curved heels 
are to be lowered and the outer and lower margin of the 
wall rounded off with the rasp. Should the hoof begin to 
assume a flat appearance much may be done to remedy the 
defect by intelligent trimming of the hoof, always keeping in 
mind, however, the normal relations of the hoof and foot axes. 
Eegular washing of the hoofs and the provision of plenty 
of clean bedding are of great importance. 



TREATMENT OF THE HOOF. 313 

The shoeing of colts is to be strongly deprecated. The 
development of the hoof is impeded by shoeing, and young 
horses when shod are often excessively worked and thus ruined 
before they attain maturity. Moderate work in the fields does 
not injure young stock, but for this purpose shoes are not 
required. 

When full-grown unshod horses are not regularly exercised 
it is also necessary from time to time to lower the wall and to 
round off its outer edge with the rasp. 

(h) Cake of the Shod Hoof. 

The hoof when shod is more exposed to injury than when 
unshod, for shoeing, though absolutely necessary to permit of 
work on hard roads, prevents or diminishes the expansion and 





Fig. 309.— Instruments for cleaning out feet. Left, portable form ; right, stable form 

with hammer. 

contraction of the hoof, and thus interferes with local circula- 
tion and checks the growth of horn. 

To this may be added the bad effects of standing in stables. 
The animal suffers from want of exercise, from the foulness of 
the surface on which it stands, and from drying of the hoof. 
Continued standing causes contraction of the hoof, a condition 
favoured by dryness. This is best seen in front hoofs. Badly 
laid or uneven floors cause fatigue of the limbs, favour the 
accumulation of urine, etc., and are thus indirectly responsible 
for attacks of thrush. To prevent such contingencies the hoof 
should be shortened every four to six weeks, and if necessary 



314 CAKE OF THE HOOF. 

the horse should be re-shod. The stall should be kept clean 
and the foot itself moist. The straw should be dry and 
renewed daily, and the hoofs picked out and washed every; 
morning. This will prevent thrush in the hind-feet. Th& 
front-feet gain sufficient moisture from the daily washing t0 
preserve their elasticity, and thus permit of the horny capsule 
yielding when weight is thrown on the hoof. To prevent the 
hoofs becoming dry, the entire surface may afterwards be 
smeared with hoof ointment. This prevents loss of moisture, 
and, in cases where daily washing is impossible, some variety 
of hoof dressing is advisable. Only a small quantity of 
the ointment is necessary, but the entire hoof, especially 
the perioplic ring, frog, and horny sole, should be covered. 
Vaseline and lanoline are very good dressings, the latter being 
somewhat expensive. One of the chief means of securing a 
healthy hoof is plenty of exercise. This increases local circula- 
tion and growth of horn, for which reason horses in regular 
work usually have better lioofs than those much confined "to 
the stable. 

Note. — Zschokke, Smith, and Dominik have all made experi- 
ments on the action of hoof ointments. Zschokke considers 
they diminish absorption and evaporation, and are most effectual 
where these processes go on most actively, viz., in the frog and 
in the sole. They have little effect on the horn wall. Vase- 
line and lanoline produce the best results, glycerine tends to> 
dry the hoof. 

Apart from this indirect action no hoof ointment appears to 
liave much effect in preserving the horn. Vaseline, applied to 
fleshly trimmed soles and frogs, may prevent rapid drying of 
the exposed horn and exclude dirt or irritant fluids. Its 
action principally depends on its retarding the evaporation of 
water previously absorbed ; it has little effect on the wall, 
and its effects on the sole and frog are increased by previous 
cleansing. An ideal hoof dressing should not chemically alter 
the horn, should keep well, be impervious to moisture, exercise 
a disinfectant action, and be cheap. According to Veterinary- 
Major Fred. Smith (see " The Chemistry of the Hoof of the 
Horse," Veterinary Joibrnal, 1887, page 373), the horn very 
readily loses water, fresh wall horn losing in twenty-four hours 
from 1-92 to 2*45 per cent., and in five days from 4^36 to 



HOOF DRESSINGS AND THEIR ACTION. 315 

4' 71 per cent. Smith gives the following figures us to the 
capacity for absorption of fresh wall liorn. In from twenty- 
six to ninety-eight days the horn absorbed : — 

Water. . . . 20*36 per cent. 

Castor oil, . . 0*234 per ceni. (brittle, dry lu-i-u). 

Olive oil, . . 2*2 per cent. 

Lanoline, . . ' fi*5 per cent. 

The loss of such substances in a given time is more or l^ss.the 
same as the gain. Dominik has confirmed the experiments of 
Zschokke and added to them as follows :— 

1. Horn loses moisture but slowly ; evaporation is greatest 
from the periople, frog, sole, and portions of the wall which 
have been rasped or fissured. 

2. Horn takes up water to a slight extent, absorption being 
freest in the frog and periople ; less so in the freshly paredi 
sole and in the rasped and fissured wall. 

3. The frog and periople become completely softened and 
their length and thickness alter. 

4. Hoof ointments diminish both evaporation and absorption 
of water, especially by the periople and frog. 

5. Oil is a less valuable dressing than ointment. The 
dressing should be of moderately firm consistence and may 
contain wax, turpentine, and fat. 

6. Tar penetrates and softens the .superficial layers. It is,: 
therefore, only suitable for the sole and frog, in which the 
superficial parts are naturally shed. 

7. Ointments of wax, turpentine, and fat are most effectual 
on the periople, on the freshly trimmed frog and sole, and 
on the rasped or fissured wall. They preserve the elasticity of 
the horn chiefiy by preventing evaporation. Poultices and 
foot-baths are only necessary where the feet become excessively 
dry from horses standing continuously in the stable. 

As ointments have little power of softening horn, their use 
should always be preceded by that of water. 



SECTION III. 

THE SHOEING OF DISEASED FEET 
AND OF LAME HORSES. 



1 



On account of the intimate connection and interaction 
between the hoof and the limb above it, changes in one part 
are usually associated with changes in the other, and it is not 
always possible to draw a sharp line between sound action and 
lameness. Disease of the limb may produce changes in the 
form and condition of the foot, while, vice versa, changes in the 
foot or faults in shoeing may be followed by disease in the 
limb. The diagnosis of disease of the hoof and limb is chiefly 
the function of the veterinary surgeon, but the instructed 
farrier should possess at least an elementary knowledge, 
because it is his duty, on the one hand, to avoid inducing 
disease, and, on the other, to prevent or minimise its evil 
effects. 



CHAPTER I. 

INFLAMMATION^ WITHIN THE HOOF. 

Lameness is usually produced by a localised disease process, 
consisting of interference with nutrition and its resulting 
phenomena, which are recognised under the title of inflamma- 
tion. The first stage of inflammation is indicated by the 
sudden determination of blood to the part. This is followed 
by congestion and even by complete stoppage of circulation in 



INJURIES TO HORN SECRETING STRUCTURES. 317 

the injured area. Certain constituents of the blood may then 
pass through the vessel walls into neighbouring tissues, causing 
changes in form and relation and interfering with the function 
of the inflamed parts. 

The symptoms of inflammation are Ave, viz., pain, increased 
warmth, local reddening, swelling, and impaired function. 
These symptoms are only to be observed in their entirety during 
inflammation of superficial portions of the body. Inflammation 
of internal organs, on the other hand, can only be conjectured 
from disturbed function and its consequences. 

In inflammation within the hoof the five above named 
symptoms are all present though not all observable ; thus 
swelling and redness can only be noted when the coronary 
l)and and the bulbs are inflamed, and even then redness is only 
to be seen in non-pigmented skin. In laminitis, however, 
another important symptom is usually present, viz., increased 
pulsation of the digital arteries. Pain, increased warmth, and 
lameness are, however, invariably present, and are, therefore, 
of the greatest diagnostic value. The seat of inflammation is 
usually the corium. When lameness is solely due to contrac- 
tion, etc., of the hoof, symptoms of inflammation are wanting, 
though laminitis is probably more apt to occur in weak and 
fleshy than in sound, strong hoofs. 

The inflammation in from about two to six days ends in 
resolution, or may be followed by so-called rheumatic or chronic 
laminitis, suppuration, which is indicated by continued pain, 
or even by necrosis and septic-inflammation, which are usually 
followed by loss of the hoof and death. 

The examination should be commenced by walking the 
horse, when it will be seen whether the animal is lame at all, 
and if so, on which limb. The statements of the groom are 
not always to be relied on, nor (after exercise) is the lameness 
always so marked as to be seen at the first glance ; sometimes 
it is only visible at a trot or on hard pavement. The horse 
when walked or trotted, especially on hard ground, will be 
seen to go short and timidly on the lame foot, the limb not 
being extended in the ordinary way, the diseased foot being 
lifted from the ground more rapidly than the sound one, and 
the weight of the body thrown more rapidly and with more 
force on the normal foot. The body, therefore, appears to 



INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. 



sink towards the sound side. In short, the horse nods. Onc< 
the lame limb is discovered the foot may be examined. 

The painful spot may be only of small size, and, therefore, 
the examination should be thorough. Specially formed toiigs 
have been made for this purpose, the smaller of which (fig. 310) 
is for the examination of parts close to the circumference of 
the sole, the larger for parts further removed and for the 
examination of the joint and navicular bone. The farrier's 
ordinary pincers serve every purpose, however. 

It requires considerable care to distinguish between the 
natural sensitiveness of the horse and the pain caused by 
■disease. Eough, violent use of the pincers must always be 




Figs. 310, 311.— Special pincers for examining diseased feet 



avoided, for severe pressure will produce pain even in the 
soundest hoof. The same force must be applied at each spot, 
the hoof being tested at short intervals over its entire surface, 
as the diseased spot and corresponding area of tenderness are 
often very restricted. 

The degree of pressure should be adapted to the condition of 
the sole. When the parts are thin and yielding, very little 
pressure produces pain, and the tender spot is quite sufficiently 
indicated by slight quivering of the muscles of the shoulder 
^nd upper limb. 

Sometimes the pincers fail; the suspected spot may then be 
tested by light blows with the hammer. Increased local 
warmth sometimes gives information, whicli can be confirmed. 



COMBINATION FARRIER'S TOOL 




The tool illustrated combines in itself pincers, hammer, and buffer. 'As it 
occupies no more space than an ordinary pair of pincers, it may be carried with- 
out inconvenience, and is useful for removing a shoe in an emergency. By remov- 
ing the nut, the hammer and buffer can be used to cut the clenches, and by 
replacing it a pair of pincers for removing the shoe and ' trying round' the foot 
is obtained. 



iTofacep. 318. 



EXAMINATION OF HOOF FOR COllNS, ETC. 319 

by the use of the hammer. The coiiditicn of the lateral 
cartilages should be noted and the individual joints of the fool 
tested by passive movement and by manipulation to detect new 
growths or excessive sensitiveness. If, in spite of all this, uo 
satisfactory indication of disease is forthcoming, the Hexoi- 
tendons may be examined by running the thumb and fore- 
linger along their course and noting any thickened or painful 
spot. 

The causes are luimerous and varied. Tliey ma}' be divided 
into (1) congenital, (2) mechanical, (3) thermal, (4) chemical, 
and (5) specific. The first three, however, are of chief import- 
ance. Congenital causes are to be found in faulty conforma- 
tion of the limb and irregularities in the condition of the hoof 
causing unequal distribution of pressure. Mechanical causes 
are numerous ; amongst them must be ranked, eirors in trim- 
ming the foot, weakeniug the lioof, bad fitting (causing local 
pressure), dryness of the hoof, unskilful or excessive driving, 
as well as direct wounds and bruises of the sensitive structures 
of the hoof. Amongst thermal causes is burning of the toe 
during fitting. Chemical and specific causes are rarer. The 
fact that the corium lies between the hard horny box and the 
equally hard os pedis explains the frequency with which it is 
bruised and inflamed. 

The front feet (especially in their inner half) are more often 
diseased than tlie liind. This results from the crreater weight 
they carry and the drying influences to which they are exposed. 
In shoes with heels or heels and toes, one heel is apt to be 
higher than the other, and as the foot is then raised unnaturally 
high, any slight error in form or fitting is exaggerated, the 
joints are strained, and the hoof itself suffers. 

Treatment. — The chief object is to remove the cause, per- 
manently if possible. 

The shoe is carefully taken off, and its form, position, and 
l)earing surface examined. By replacing it for the moment we 
note whether it fits at all points or not. The hoof is then 
carefully examined in every part ; the white line especially 
should receive attention. After removing a thin slice from the 
white line and neighbouring parts the form and direction of 
the nail holes can be seen. Any superfluous horn is then 
removed from the wall and sole. The frog is cautiously 



320 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. 

trimmed, partly to assist the action of poultices, should such be 
required, partly to make the horny capsule more yielding (and 
to discover injury caused by gathered nail, etc.). If the sole is 
coloured yellow, yellowish-green, yellowish-red, red, or pink, 
we know that blood has been extravasated and has penetrated 
the horn. The cutting out of the diseased hoof should follow I 
the examination with pincers, and the amount removed should I 
not be sufficient to alter the direction of the limb, nor the ■ 
manner of tread. 

To limit the local inflammation the hoof should be kept cool 
and soft. The difficulty is less to cool it than to soften the 
horn, and so, by relieving pressure on the inflamed spot, to 
favour free circulation of blood. Linseed-meal poultices, to 
which is added some antiseptic, act most effectually, especially 
when frequently moistened with water. A piece of sacking 
20 to 30 inches square is taken, the poultice placed in the 
centre, the foot placed on the poultice, and the sides of the 
sacking drawn upwards and fastened around the coronet by a 
bandage or straw band, which impedes the flow of blood much 
less than cords or straps. The portions of sacking which pro- 
ject above the straw band are then turned downwards and 
fastened securely below the straw band by means of a tape. 
To thoroughly soften the hard, dry hoof it is necessary to leave 
the poultice forty-eight hours in position and to moisten it freely 
with water during that time. In fact it does no harm to leave 
the poultice in position until the pain has greatly diminished. 
But this method must not he resorted to when ;pus formation has 
occurred, as it favours discharge of pus at the coronet and the 
formation of ' quittor.' After removing the poultice the hoof 
is washed clean, the shoe replaced, if necessary, and the hoof 
rubbed with vaseline or fat. Instead of the poultice described, 
six or eight thicknesses of wet linen may be wound round the 
hoof and retained in position by a leather or felt boot. 

The onset of suppuration is notified by severe, continued 
pain and marked pulsation of the digital arteries. To provide 
free drainage for the pus, the most painful spot has first to be 
discovered. The sole should then be thinned all round the 
painful spot until the sensitive structures are reached, the bear- 
ing surface of the wall being left intact. For this purpose a 
'• searcher/ i.e., a special knife with a slender blade, or the in- 



TREATMENT OF SUPPURATING CORN. 



321 



strument shown in fig, 312 may be used. The margins of 
the opening, so far as they are formed by the sole, should be 
thinned until they yield to the pressure of the finger. If pus 
be discovered the parts are next flooded with warm 5 per cent, 
carbolic, creosote, or creolin solution, and covered with carbolic, 
sublimate, iodoform, or salicylic wool. There is some advantage 
in afterwards painting the parts with a resinous tincture, like 
tincture of myrrh or the compound tincture of myrrh and aloes. 
The dressing is held in position by broad strips of gauze and a 



Fig. 312. — Special ' searcher ' used in giving exit to pus. 

shoe with leather sole applied. A better way to fix dressings 
in position is by thrusting two thin strips of wood or hoop iron 
cross-wise between the dressing and shoe. 

If no pus be found, cold poultices or baths may be continued. 

The colour of the pus is of importance. A grey fluid dis- 
charge is a result of superficial inflammation of the corium; a 
condition which readily yields to treatment. The production of 
yellowish thick pus, however, even in very small quantities, 
points to inflammation of the deeper lying layers of the corium 
and to a more obstinate condition. Under such circumstances 
the advice of a veterinary surgeon should be sought. 

X 



322 



INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. 



The shoe is made wider or longer in the diseased region 
than at the points opposite. If, for example, the inner heel is 
painful, the inner heel of the shoe should be a little longer and 
a little wider than its fellow, and vice versa. To prevent the 
shoe pressing on the painful spot, the wall is slightly rasped 
away around that point. But if an ordinary shoe is so fitted, 
that one side of the hoof is free of pressure, it will be noted 
that during movement the hoof approaches, and actually comes 
in contact with, the shoe at that point, and with a rapidity in 
direct proportion to the flatness of the hoof. The hoof springs, 
in fact. Under such circumstances there must inevitably be 
pressure upon the diseased spot, and, therefore, in flat feet, 
ordinary shoes should never be used. In strong, upright feet, 
on the other hand, this ' springing ' is much less, the heels 
descend comparatively little, because the posterior half of the 
hoof bears much less weight than in flat feet. 

The bar shoe (fig. 313), so called because its heels are united 
by a transverse bar, is of the greatest service for injured or 
diseased feet. It enables the frog to assist in supporting the 



li 




Fig. 313. — Bar shoe, seen from above. 

body-weight, thus relieving the wall to a corresponding extent, 
and whilst with ordinary shoes the frog is almost always 
functionally passive, the bar shoe restores it more or less to its 
normal function. In heavy horses with weak feet this relief is 
of great importance. 

A few practical examples will confirm this. We may take 
the action of the ordinary seated shoe, having a narrow bearing 



SHOEING AFTER CORN. 323 

surface covering that of the wall but uot extending to any 
portion whatever of the sole. In horses with narrow upright 
hoofs and in those working on soft ground this shoe is quite 
satisfactory, but is liable, under opposite conditions, to produce 
separation of the wall. By increasing the width of the surfaces 
of contact between shoe and hoof, or by applying a bar shoe, 
this is, however, entirely avoided. 

In horses with weak heels the ordinary shoe is apt to cause 
the heel to turn inwards and its use to be followed by pro- 
duction of corns and contraction of the hoof. The cause is the 
shape of the shoe, which relieves the frog and sole of weight 
at the expense of the heels, which yield, bend inwards, and 
cause lameness. The lameness disappears, when, by the appli- 
cation of a bar shoe, the frog is forced to sustain a portion of 
the weight. In sandcrack and cracks of the bar, this form of 
shoe supports the posterior part of the foot, and by increasing 
its functional activity encourages growth and expansion. Where 
a hoof shows more than one crack the action of the bar shoe 
is assisted by applying a thick leather and padding the space 
between it and the sole of the foot with tow. A portion of the 
weight is then borne by the frog and by the sole itself. A 
bar shoe can always be applied, even when one quarter or 
quarter and heel are much broken, provided the frog be sound 
and fairly developed. Should the frog be healthy, but small, 
it may be built up by applying gutta-percha or the special 
cement later described. 

In case of the frog being affected with thrush, the pro- 
cedure is as follows : — After the shoe is fitted, all loose pieces 
of horn are removed by a searcher, the parts thoroughly washed 
with water, then with 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid, 
creosote, or creolin, the entire ground surface of the hoof 
smeared with wood tar or Venice turpentine, a pad of tow 
applied, a leather sole fitted over all and the shoe nailed on. 
The bar shoe should not be employed in navicular disease, 
double side-bones, or in the case of picked-up nails (which 
almost always enter the frog). 

The bar shoe permits any part of the bearing surface of the 
hoof to be left uncovered and to be reheved of pressure without 
stoppage of work. The entire frog is capable of bearing weight, 
but the posterior part is best suited for the purpose, and there 
the bar should take its bearing. 



324 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. 



CONCAVE BAE FOKE SHOE (Fig. 314). 
Made in concave tool from -| X -|- inch iron. 

This is a bar shoe for hunters suffering from sandcrack or 
any of the other conditions in which bar shoes seem indicated. 
Although it is often stated that bar shoes are inapplicable to 
hunters as they are sure to be torn off, the experience of the 
authors is to the contrary, and Mr Wheatley has on niany 
occasions applied them with success. 

Special precautions, however, are necessary. The shoe must 
be drawn from the centre of the quarter towards the bar until the 
extreme posterior part is only about ^ inch in thickness, and the 
bar must not project even a fraction of an inch behind the heels. 

To obtain the best results the heels must be fitted ' full ' on 
either side, and the upper outer edge hot-rasped to the dimen- 
sions of the foot, so as to present an oblique bevelled margin 
about X6 or |- inch wide. There is then no danger of the shoe 
being trodden ofif. 




Fig. 314. — Concave bar fore shoe. Made in concave tool from f x | inch iron. 



[To face p. -324. 



3=T^£ii;J&*"^'^-*Ii!S^'-— "'I 








11, 'iVi|nhV--'-"'^-~x+" '!■'■:■' ' to-!''"*! -■-,,; -„>- j«' 



Figs. 315. 316. -Fulkred bar hind shoe (seated around toe).; Made from 

i X f inch iron. 
To face p. 325.] 



BAR SHOES. 325 



FULLERED BAE HIND SHOE (SEATED 
AR0U:N'D TOE) (Figs. 315, 316). 

Made from J X -g- iron. 

This is a special shoe for harness or riding horses with 
* dropped sole ' in a hind foot ; it can also be used for the 
treatment of 'seedy-toe,' as the diseased parts can be dressed 
through the seating without the shoe being removed. 

Clips are drawn on either side of the toe, because in many 
cases there is not sufficient horn at the toe to permit of their 
being placed there, and also because clips in this position allow 
the shoe to be placed further back if required. 

The shoe is slightly cradled, i.e., it is thinner at the toe and 
heel than at the quarter, a formation which enables the animal 
to place more weight on the back of the foot, thereby relieving 
the toe. In many cases this is a very important consideration. 

The toe of the shoe is widened as well as seated-out, so as to 
give ample * cover ' to the injured or diseased parts. 



326 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. 



FULLERED SEATED BAE FORE SHOE (Fig. 317). 
Made from -g X y inch iron. 



1 



This is the ordinary form of bar shoe for harness horses. 
Amono; the conditions in which its use is indicated are :- 

1. Corns. Here it reheves the heels of pressure by imposing 
a proportion of the weight on the frog. A bar shoe can also be 
fitted ' fuller ' at the heels than an ordinary shoe, and hence 
is less likely to produce pressure on the seat of corn than a 
narrow heeled shoe. 

2. Flat or dropped sole following laminitis. The heels of 
the shoe should be thinned, or the heels and toe also may be 
thinned, the quarters being left of full strength. This ' cradling ' 
of the shoe much improves the gait of horses with dropped sole. 

3. Flat feet with weak, low heels. By giving a broad bearing 
surface at the heels and by transferring weight to the frog, 
attrition between the heels of foot and of the shoe is lessened, 
and an opportunity is given for the parts to grow and become 
stronger. 

4. Sandcrack and seedy toe. It is possible that in the 
case of sandcrack steady pressure on the posterior parts of the 
foot lessens the chance of the crack opening, and, by retaining 
the edges of the crack in apposition, favours the growth of a 
(new) sound wall. 

Wherever there is any painful affection about the toe of the 
foot and the horse goes on his heels, bar shoes are useful. They 
should be fitted ' full ' at the heels, and either ' boxed up ' or 
' hot-rasped ' up to the heel of the foot. This is more impor- 
tant than fitting them so long at the heel, as is customary. 




Fig. 317. — Fullered seated bar fore shoe. Made from | x i inch iron. 



[To face p. 326. 




Fig. 318. — Fullered seated three-quarter bar fore shoe (for harness horse). 



Made from | x | inch iron. 




Fig. 319.— Stamped bar hind shoe (for cart horse). Made from 
I5 X ^ inch iron. 
To face ^. 327.] 



% 



BAR SHOES. 327 



FULLEEED SEATED THEEE-QUAETEE BAE EOEE 
SHOE (FOE HAENESS HOESE) (Fig. 318). 

Made from -g^ X -J- inch iron. 

This shoe is intended for a fleshy, low-heeled, weak foot, or 
for a foot with dropped sole and with a corn in the inner heel. 
In cases of suppurating corn it allows of the parts being 
efficiently poulticed, and in sandcrack or false quarter invol- 
ving the extreme back portion of the inside quarter is very 
useful. 

The back part of the inside quarter of shoe must be fitted 
* full,' otherwise it is liable to cause the hoof to split away at 
this point, especially as hoofs affected with sandcrack are 
usually very brittle. 

The clip may be at the toe or outer quarter, or a clip may 
be placed at both points. The outer quarter is recommended, 
however, as the preferable spot. 



STAMPED BAE HIND SHOE (FOE CAET HOESE) 

(Fig. 319). 

Made from 1^ X ^ inch iron. 

This shoe is intended for cases where the hoof shows a ' false- 
quarter ' inside, and where the horse has sustained an injury to 
the inner heel, which must be relieved of weight. The inside 
nail holes are therefore placed opposite the only sound part of 
the foot, viz., that close to the toe. 

The clips are at the toe and outer quarter. 



^28 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. 



Substitutes foe Horn. 

De Fay's hoof cement was the first material introduced 
for the treatment of cracks, etc., in the wall. It consists of 
purified gutta-percha and gum ammoniacum. The gutta-percha 
is softened in water, divided into pieces the size of a hazel 
nut, mixed with an equal proportion of gum ammoniacum and 
melted in a vessel of tinned iron over a slow fire. The mass is 
slowly stirred until thoroughly mixed, when it has the colour 
and appearance of chocolate. Lastly, it is formed into sticks. 
Thus prepared, it is hard at ordinary temperatures, and is, 
therefore, suited for use in summer ; softer mixtures for winter 
use can be prepared by increasiag the proportion of gutta- 
percha. 

De Fay's artificial horn closely resembles natural horn in 
consistence and toughness. It can readily be softened and 
moulded, is insoluble in water, and adheres very firmly to the 
hoof. It may be employed to build up too low a wall or to 
replace lost portions; to close sandcracks and thus prevent 
entrance of dirt ; in the various forms of dropped sole to raise 
the bearing surface of the wall in seedy toe, or, before applying 
a bar shoe, to build up the frog if atrophied and functionally 
inactive. 

It should not, however, be resorted to in cases of loose wall, 
because, after hardening, it acts as a wedge and increases the 
separation. In use it is warmed till fluid, and applied with a 
spatula to the part to be filled up or raised. To smooth off 
the surface the spatula is moderately heated and once more 
passed over it. 

Before applying the composition, the horn should be freed 
from grease, thoroughly dried and slightly roughened. To 
remove grease, the parts are rubbed over with a few drops of 
sulphuric ether or benzolin applied on a pledget of tow. As 
repeated heating injures the qualities of the mass, it is advis- 
able to melt only the exact amount needed on each occasion. 

Until recently this was the best known material for repair- 
ing and replacing horn, but of late another and better material 
has been produced. • It is a German preparation, and is termed 
* huflederkitt.' As purchased, it resembles leather, is reddish- 



HOKX SUBSTITUTES. 329 

brown in colour, and appears to consist largely of gutta-percha 
with the addition of some india-rubber and inorganic materials. 
It is very elastic and tough, can be >Yarmed either in water or 
over a fire, when it becomes plastic ; on cooling, it again 
assumes its hard, leather-like condition, without losing the 
form given it. It may be used in any part of the hoof where 
additions are required. As compared with De Fay's artificial 
horn it possesses the following advantages : — 1. After melting 
it solidities more rapidly than De Fay's preparation. 2. In 
cooling it remains firmly fixed to the horn wall and does not 
shrink, whilst De Fay's mixture contracts, and is apt to lose its 
hold. 3. It can be melted as frequently as required without 
losing its qualities, whilst De Fay's cement rapidly deteriorates. 
4. It requires no special preparation, like the removal of 
grease or the roughening and drying of the horn, though such 
precautions are perhaps still advisable. 

In all cases where De Fay's artificial horn can be used with 
advantage this preparation may now be substituted for it. In 
Germany it is largely used instead of vulcanised rubber or 
rope in special grooved shoes designed to diminish slipping on 
smooth pavements. It has also been employed as a dressing 
for hoofs. In this case the under surface of the hoof is care- 
fully cleaned and disinfected, and the melted ' huflederkitt ' 
applied with a spatula. The frog may be covered or left ex- 
posed. If the space be filled up as far as the bearing surface 
of the shoe, the counter-pressure of the ground is transmitted 
very perfectly to all parts of the sole, etc., whilst at the same 
time slipping on asphalt or stone pavements is minimised. 



CHAPTER 11. 

DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 
1, Flat Sole. 

A FLAT sole is one which exhibits no arching towards the 
centre, but lies more or less evenly in the same plane as the 
wall, the latter being usually very oblique. The condition is 
commoner in front than in hind feet, and is frequently con- 




FiG. 320.— Section of flat hoof with weak sole, a shows weakened sole ; &, weakening of the 

union between wall and sole. 

genital, especially in horses reared on soft marshy ground. 
It may also be produced by paring away too much of the sole 
around its union with the wall (figs. 320 and 321), and keeping 
the hoof continually moist. Apart from congenital conditions 




Fig. 321.— Special shoe for above foot. 

the most frequent cause, however, is the use of shoes which 
raise the frog clear of the ground, and thus throw the entire 
weight on the wall. On account of its oblique course, the 
wall is then unable to sustain the load, and the os pedis, 
especially in its posterior parts, gradually descends ; the 



FLAT SOLE. 331 

descent being greater on the side which bears the greater 
weight. The union between the sensitive and horny structures 
is exposed to severe strain, the laminae gradually enlarge and 
yield, and the os pedis presses on the sensitive and horny soles 
until it finally thrusts them downwards. This is followed by 
changes in the sole and atrophy of the os pedis, best marked 
at its wings and sharp plantar margin. The more developed 
the atrophy the more convex does the horny sole appear. 
Change in position of the os pedis, again, produces distortion of 
the coronary band and displacement of its papillae. This gives 
rise to the formation of rings and splits in the wall, while, 
owing to its oblique position, the wall itself tends to bend out- 
wards at the bearing surface. The more oblique the wall and 
the heavier the horse the more rapidly do such changes pro- 
ceed. When the toe is much turned out they only affect the 
inner half of the foot, but then occur very rapidly. The flat- 
soled hoof grows chiefly forwards and outwards, and is hence 
very liable to suffer from separation of the wall. When the 
heels are weak and the sole flat the heels turn inwards ; when 
the hoof is less spread the bars may grow over the posterior 
portions of the sole : in either case corns are common. 

It is impossible to cure this flat condition of the sole. 
Possibility of improvement exists when the condition is not 
far advanced, when the horn fibres are fine and tough, and 
the animal is of light weight, but, as a rule, all the unfavour- 
able factors are combined. The animal is then absolutely un- 
suitable for rapid work on hard roads, and can be employed 
only at a walk or in the fields. 

Something may be done to improve matters and prevent the 
changes which have taken place becoming aggravated. The 
sole, being very thin, should be trimmed as little as possible. 
Loose fragments of horn may be removed, the bars, if over- 
lapping the posterior portions of the sole, cut back, and the 
bearing margin of the wall levelled with the rasp. The outer 
edge of the wall, especially at the toe, should be well rounded 
off, and unduly convex portions as far as possible levelled. 
The frog and sole must be spared. Where the position of the 
limb is normal and the horn of good quality an ordinary flat, 
wide-webbed, well-seated shoe with a broad bearing surface, and 
made from thick iron, is suitable ; the heels should be some- 



332 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 



what long. A leather sole is useful, and the frog should be 
allowed to come to the ground. In all other cases, as when 
the horn is of bad quality, or when corns, contraction, sand 
crack, separation of the wall, etc., are present, bar shoes are 
preferable. The bearing surface should be as large as possible, 
so that the weight may be distributed over the entire foot. 
The wall, white line, and outer margin of the sole should all 
assist. Where the wall projects below the sole, the bearing 
surface of the shoe may be given a slight cant inwards (fig. 
322, h), but a horizontal bearing surface should be preferred 
when the wall has grown down again. The toe-clip can be 



1 




Fig. 322.— Transverse section through a flat-soled hoof with slioe. At a the wall is suffi- 
ciently high and the surface of the shoe is therefore flat. At b the wall is not high 
enough and the bearing surface of the shoe is therefore canted inwards. 

let into the foot almost as far as the white line without injury 
— sometimes several clix3S are required; the direction of the 
nail holes must in all such hoofs be governed by the direction 
of the wall. 

The space caused by separations in the wall may be filled 
with tar or Venice turpentine. De Fay's hoof cement mass 
should never be used, because as it hardens it acts like a 
wedge, and causes further separation. Two quarter-clips may 
be raised opposite the point of the frog, and will be found 
very useful in retaining the shoe in position. To protect the 
sole, it may be smeared with Venice turpentine, pitch, or soft 
resin. Where the wall and frog are defective, a leather sole 
can be applied. If, however, the frog is large, and projects 
below the heels, the cross piece of the bar shoe may be allowed 
to bear on it, or an ordinary flat shoe provided with low heels 
may be applied. 

The condition just discussed may be still more aggravated. 
The sole is then distinctly ' dropped ' or convex. This con- 
dition may involve either one or both sides of the hoof ; in 



FLAT AND ' DROPPED SOLE. 



333 



fig. 323 only one-half of the sole, the inner, is so deformed. 
The wall generally exhibits rings and furrows, and is more or 
less depressed at tlie centre, its outline being concave. In the 
imshod hoof the frog and horny sole then take the entire 
weight, hence animals with convex sole can neither go nor 
stand continuously without shoes. 

The wavy appearance sometimes shown, which reaches from. 




Fig. 323. — Left front foot with inside half of sole ' dropped ' or convex, seen from l)elo\v, in, 
front and in section, a-b, direction of section; c, broken wall ; d, 'dropped' portioni 
of sole ; e, os pedis atrophied by pressure ; /, depression extendius from coronet to- 
ground ; g, concave inner quarter. 

the coronet to the bearing surface, and the form and condition, 
of the hoof, point strongly to the displacement of the os pedis. 

Dropped sole may result from a continuation of the process 
which produces flat sole, or from laminitis. In the former case- 
one lateral half of the sole is usually deformed, and the white- 
line is not increased in breadth ; in the latter the convexity 
usually appears in front of the point of the frog, the white- 
line is perceptibly broader, and the rings on the wall are close 
together at the toe, but diverge as they extend towards the 
heels. 

In general, the same treatment is appropriate in convex as 
in flat sole. When the sole projects so far below the bearing 
surface of the wall that it would touch the ground even after 
the application of a thick bar shoe, it may be necessary to 
build up the wall with an artificial composition, and to secure 
the sole from contact with the ground by the use of toe-pieces 
and heels. Screws are then very useful in conjunction with 
bar shoes. 

On account of the brittleness of the wall, as few nails as 
possible should be employed, and to secure the shoe it is often 
well to form a quarter-clip at either side. The position of the 



334 DEFOEMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF, 

nails should be slightly changed at each shoeing. Horses with 
convex soles are, of course, quite useless for rapid work. 

To prevent the sole being bruised the shoe must be well 
seated out, and, unless the case is very aggravated, a leather 
sole applied. To save the hoof being softened by long con- 
tact with moisture during wet weather, a hoof ointment should 
be used. 



STAMPED FOKE SHOE (FOR CAET HORSE). 
THE * QUOIT' SHOE (Fig. 324). 

Made from 1-f X -g- inch iron. 

In making this shoe the outer margin of the web is thinned 
down to ^ or |- inch, the inner margin being left of the full |- 
inch strength. 

The shoe has been recommended for cases of laminitis where 
exudation is occurring and there is danger of the sole becoming 
convex, but where pain is slight. Some practitioners consider 
this condition is best treated by applying a ' quoit ' shoe and 
steadily working the animal on soft ground. 



STAMPED FORE SHOE (FOR CART HORSE) 'SET' 
AROUND OUTER MARGIN (Fig. 325). 

Made from 1^ X I inch iron. 

This shoe is ' set ' around the outer margin of the ground 
surface and is deeply seated-out on the foot surface, and has 
two calkins. The ' set ' tool resembles a single-faced hammer. 
It is held and applied in the same way as a stamp or fuller ; the 
result of ' setting ' is well shown in the illustration. 

This shoe is intended for a horse with very convex (dropped) 
soles and weak feet and large frogs. 





<r> 


a 






r^ 


bo 


"1 






B 


; 


^ 


1 


<u 




-M 


lo 


d 


'M 


o 


CO 




a 








f^ 





[To face p. .334. 





o 



X 







o 




o 



CO 



CO 



CO 



E^ 



To face p. 335.] 



SHOES FOR CART-HORSE WITH 'DROPPED' SOLES. 335 



STAMPED HIND SHOE (FOR CAET HORSE) 

(Figs. 326, 327). 

Made from ij X -f inch iron. 

Being intended for a foot with ' dropped sole ' or ' seedy toe ' 
(or both), this shoe is deeply seated out round the toe, at which 
point, in consequence, it has extra ' cover.' The shoe has a 
clip on either side of the toe, and the nail holes are stamped a 
little further back than usual, in order to obtain a firm hold of 
the foot even when the toe is ' seedy,' and to allow the shoe to 
be set further back on the foot and the toe to be shortened. 

Calkins as shown are necessary to give working horses a 
good foothold, though it is open to question whether they 
could be pronounced advantageous were one considering the 
question of disease alone. 



336 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 



2. Upeight Hoof. 

The description ' upright ' may be applied to any hoof, the 
toe of which, when viewed from the side, forms an angle of more 
than 60° with the ground, and the heels, compared with the toe, 
appear too high. The relative lengths of heel and toe vary. 
While in slight cases of upright hoof the length of the toe is 
scarcely double that of the heel, measured at the posterior 
border, in aggravated cases the height of the toe and heel may 
be equal. The toe is then at right angles to the earth, and 
the quarters nearly perpendicular. The sole is usually very 
concave, though the os pedis does not always correspond. In 
walking, the toe is most worn, and (except in the conformation 
shown by fig. 169) the entire weight of the body falls on the 
anterior half of the hoof. 

Upright hoof is seen in all classes of horses, and affects both 
the fore and hind feet. 

The condition is peculiar to the positions shown in figs. 151 
and 169. It is due to hereditary tendency, or is produced 
by neglect of the feet in young animals, the toe being dis- 
proportionately shortened in comparison with the heels, and 
is apt to follow diseases of the limb, which, for lengthened 
periods, prevent extension of the fetlock joint. Among such 
are inflammation of the flexor tendons and of the posterior 
ligaments of the limb, spavin, and ring bone. Thrush is very 
apt to accompany this formation of hoof. According to 
Siedamgrotzky, it is always present in old standing cases of 
contracted tendon. In consequence of the gradual shortening 
of the flexor tendons, the os pedis undergoes a partial 
rotation on its transverse axis. The resulting pressure on the 
toe leads to the papillae of the coronary band assuming a 
more upright position, and to the formation of an upright, thin, 
but firm toe wall. This is followed by a similar change in 
the heeJs, while, under continued pressure, the anterior portion 
of the sole becomes flattened and the white line increased in 
breadth. 

The prognosis depends on whether the condition is congenital, 
i,e., whether it results from the conformation of the limbs or 
whether it is acquired. 



SHOEING HOKSES WITH UPRIGHT FEET. 337 

When due to faulty conformation tlie defect is incurable, 
but less grave than when ac(|uired. The uncertain, stumbling, 
boring gait seen in horses with such hoofs is oftener a result 
of defects in the limbs than of the form of the hoof. The 
worst cases are those in which the heels do not touch the 
ground during movement, and the condition is not due to mal- 
formation of the limb. The tendons and ligaments are then 
continuously under great strain, and, in unshod animals, the 
sensitive structures of the toe are bruised in consequence of 
excessive wear. In congenital cases the heels bear an undue 
proportion of the weight. An approximately e(|ual wear of 
the shoe and a level tread show that the faulty position of the 
limb has been compensated by change in form of the hoof. 
In fact, where the conformation of the limb is abnormal, 
uprightness of the hoof is, strictly speaking, neither pathological 
nor faulty. 

The method of shoeing varies. The upright hoof, wlien 
compensatory to defective conformation, must be left alone. 
This is the case where the entire foot from the fetlock down- 
wards is upright, or where the suffraginis bone is nearly 
horizontal. But if it result from increased wear of the toe in 
foals which have not been shod, and it seem impossible to 
restore the normal position by shortening the heels, a tip or 
plain shoe with thin heels may be applied. On the other 
hand, in heavy bodied horses doing hard work on streets the 
heels should be lowered and care taken that the tread is kept 
level, while the axis of the foot is rendered somewhat more 
oblique. 

Uprightness consequent on excessive paring of the toe can 
be diminished by using shoes witli thin heels and broad toes, 
sometimes by building up the toe with a horn substitute 
{hufledei^kitt), or by gradually lowering the heels. 

If the cause be some diseased condition of the limb above 
the hoof, the object of the farrier should be to ensure a level 
tread, and it may be necessary to apply shoes with calkins or 
with thickened heels. In this case the production of upright 
hoof should be favoured, a course which at first sight may 
appear objectionable, but will be better understood by recalling 
the improvement which follows the application of a thick-heeled 
shoe in fiat-footed horses with strain or contraction of the 

Y 



338 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 

flexor tendons. The hoof is then too low at the heels to allow 
of regular distribution of weight and must be raised. In pro- 
portion as the disease of the limb, which causes uprightness, 
disappears, a better form can be given to the hoof by appropriate 
paring. To attempt to convert an upright into a normal hoof 
at one operation is only allowable in view of performing 
tenotomy. 

In shoeing ordinary working horses with upright feet it is 
generally necessary to strengthen the toe. This is best effected 
by letting in a piece of steel at that point, by drawing up a 
strong toe-clip and by ' roUing ' or rounding off the toe. The 
shoe must be broad in the web, and take a good hold of the I 
toe of the hoof. The calkins should be so high as just to touch 
the ground when the horse is standing level on all four feet. 
In shoeing horses with spavin, ring bone, and shortened tendons 
a similar shoe, but with wedge heels instead of calkins, is 
useful. \ 



STAMPED CAET HIND SHOE, WITH TOE- 
PIECE (Fig. 328). 

3Iade from 1^^ X -f inch iron. 

In cases of commencing contraction of the flexor tendon& 
of the hind limb this shoe will often be found useful. The 
calkins give the animal an assured foothold, while the toe-piece 
prevents ' knuckling ' at the fetlock, limits wear of the toe of 
shoe, and maintains a steady though limited pull on the con- 
tracted structures. At each shoeing the calkins may be 
slightly lowered, so as to keep pace with the improvement in 
position of the limb. 

Many horses, which would otherwise rapidly become useless,, 
can be rendered workable, if not actually cured, by the applica- 
tion of this shoe. 

The toe-piece, which is about 1^ inches long, is made inde- 
pendently of the shoe, and is ' shut ' or welded on to the foot 
surface. 




Fig. 328. — Stamped cart hind shoe, with toe-i)iece. 
Made from 1|- x f inch iron. 



[To face p. 338. 



SHOEING HORSES THAT 'KNUCKLE OVER.' 



339 



3. Special Shoes for Horses Knuckled Over at 
THE Coronet or Fetlock. 

* Knuckling ' at the coronet or fetlock is produced by 
shortening of the flexor tendons or by bony growths around 
the joints ; the foot, from the fetlock downwards, takes a 
perpendicular or nearly perpendicular course, so that the animal 
treads on the toe alone. This condition can sometimes be modi- 
fied, though never cured by shoeing. Sufficient may be done, 




Fig. 329. — Shoe for 'knuckling over.' a, bone deposit 
around the coronet ; b, flattened end of the shoe, 
which is kept from touching the wall by the leather 
disc, c. 




Fig. 330.— Special shoe for ' knuck- 
ling ' associated with obliteration 
of the coronet joint. 



however, to permit of the animal continuing for a long time at 
work. The shoes should be provided with heels which just 
touch the ground when the animal stands on all four feet, but 
in aggravated cases this is not sufficient, and to assist in move- 
ment it becomes necessary to lengthen the toe of the shoe. 
The exact extent and form of this prolongation cannot be 
given, as they must necessarily vary in each case. 

Such shoes have the disadvantage of being torn off occasion- 



■MO DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 

ally, the prolongation at the toe acting as a lever. To prevent 
this, Neuschield thins and flattens the extremity and bends it 
upwards and backwards so as to take a bearing on the wall of 
the toe, a stout piece of leather being interposed. 
' For the early forms of this condition in foals a special shoe 
has been used, provided with a kind of iron splint welded to 
the toe and extending upwards above the fetlock joint. It is 
inade to fit the front of the large metacarpal bone, to which it 
is secured by a well-padded bandage. The steady opposition 
to the pull of the shortened tendons gradually causes elongation 
and reduction of the knuckling. 

4. CONTKACTED FOOT. 

(A). Contraction of heels. — In contracted foot the posterior 
half of the hoof becomes narrower and presses on the con- 
tained structures, such as the corium, lateral cartilages, etc. 
The condition frequently affects flat feet, and is commoneT in 
front than behind. It may develop to a very varying extent, 
and its recognition demands a clear perception of the form of 
a normal hoof. This should have, firstly, a broad and well- 
developed frog. Both limbs of the frog should be of equal 
size, and between them should lie a moderately deep but broad 
groove. 

In unshod horses neither the central nor lateral furrows are 
widely open, because the horny frog is pressed flat and thrust 
closely against the bar at either side. 

In the contracted hoof the triangular space destined for the 
reception of the frog is diminished in size and the frog itself 
is smaller to a corresponding extent. The extremities of the 
wall, therefore, approach one another. When the condition is 
aggravated the lateral and central grooves of the frog are 
narrow, they exist as more or less deep fissures, and in fully 
developed cases the limbs of the frog almost disappear. The 
bars are sometimes even in contact or overlap one another, and 
the previously rounded prominent bulbs of the frog become 
thin and closely pressed together. Whilst in hoofs of good 
form the bars are straight, in this condition they describe a 
curve, directed towards the bearing surface of the wall, that is, 
they run backwards, outwards, and again inwards. In flat 



CONTKACTION OF THE FOOT. 



341 



hoofs the frog sometimes becomes compressed by the bars (fig. 
331) ; this is not infrequently the forerunner of contraction. 
Just as the space occupied by the frog diminishes, the direc- 




FlG. 331.— strangulation of the frog by the bars. 



tion of the walls at the heel alters. The heels gradually 
encroach on the frog, converging from the coronet towards the 
bearing surface ; they draw together either in an equal degree 





Fig. 332.— Excessive contraction of heels. 
The frog has almost disappeared. 



Fig. 333.— Fnilateral contraction. 



(fig. 332), or one to a greater extent than the other (fig. 333). 
It must not be supposed, however, that every hoof in which 
the walls at the heel converge is a contracted hoof, because^ 



342 DEFOKMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 

with the exception of pronounced upright hoofs, all show 
moderate convergence of the posterior parts of the heel 
walls. 

Horses with contracted heels usually stand with the fetlock 
upright while the axis of the foot is not infrequently bent 
backwards (see fig. 201). The diseased foot is placed a little 
in advance and is also slightly flexed. When both feet are 
diseased the animal rests them alternately, and when the con- 
dition has existed for long there is bending at the knees. 
Both the last named symptoms result from tenderness of the 
sensitive structures. 

The gait is low, 'shuffling,' and uncertain, especially for 
the first few steps. The foot strikes against obstacles and the 
animal stumbles, even on fairly level ground. This symptom, 
most marked when the horse is ridden, renders him both 
unpleasant and unsafe. At a trot he fails to extend the front 
limbs, and if only one hoof is affected may go quite lame. If 
the shoes impede expansion of the heels, the pain may even 
become acute enough to throw the horse off its feed, and cause 
it to lie continually. The pain forces the animal to go on 
the toe, and there is at first increased wear of that part of the 
shoe, though, when the process is complete, the shoe may again 
be worn level. Manual examination reveals slightly increased 
warmth at the heels, pulsation of the digital arteries, pain on 
pressing and on tapping the heels. 

In consequence of the changes going on in the hoof it loses 
its normal form and becomes longer and narrower, the horny 
sole being usually more concave, and the horn of the heels 
weaker and less tough. The bulbs are atrophied so that the 
frog partly disappears. On dissection, there is often to be 
found in the posterior half of the foot atrophy of the coronary 
band, of the plantar cushion, and sometimes even of the os 
pedis. Atrophy of the pedal bone is best seen at the wings, 
but in severe cases may extend even to other parts. 

As the hoof contracts at the heels the sensitive sole is sub- 
ject to continued pressure in direct proportion to the degree to 
which the heels converge and to which they are thrust down- 
wards. Both conditions are most marked in flat feet, and, as a 
consequence, flat feet with contracted heels almost always exhibit 
corns as a complication. The point which suffers most is perhaps 



CHANGES IN FORM OF CONTRACTED FOOT. 343 

where the coronary band is reflected forwards to become con- 
tinuous with the corresponding part of the bars. 

The strain on the coronary margin often causes sandcrack, 
and as the bars become distorted from the continued approach 
of the heels they may also exhibit fissures. 

Contracted feet expand to a much less extent than do normal 
feet, and experiments on the living animal show that in well- 
marked cases this movement is diminished, sometimes even 
entirely absent or replaced at the most anterior portion of the 
bearing surface of the heel by contraction. The coronary 
margin of the heels, on the other hand, dilates, and whilst, in 
the healthy foot, contact of the frog with the ground produces 
dilatation both at the coronary and bearing margins, in con- 
tracted feet this is always diminished if not inhibited. The 
symptoms seem due to the position of the heels relatively to the 
ground, because the more the heels converge, from above down- 
wards, the less does the bearing margin expand. Under the 
body-weight the portions comprised between the two heels, 
that is, the plantar cushion, lateral cartilages and sensitive 
wall, are strongly compressed by the inner surfaces of the heel 
walls, especially when the shoe is fitted ' too fine ' at the 
heels. This pressure (caused by the body-weight) is rendered 
more injurious by the shoe preventing any yielding at the heel — 
a condition comparable to that produced in man by too narrow 
a boot. 

This contraction at the heels leads to bruising of sensitive 
structures, rupture of small blood-vessels, and extravasation of 
blood, which stains the new horn red, while the increased strain 
at the coronary margin favours splitting and formation of sand- 
cracks. 

Though usually easy to detect, the condition may be 
mistaken for shoulder lameness, chronic navicular disease, or 
strain of the pastern joint. The corns which occur as a sequel 
are sometimes regarded as the principal disease. 

The causes are numerous, but may be divided into two groups, 
namely, predisposing and exciting. 

{a) The predisposing causes include faulty conformation of 
the limb and defective shape of the hoof, but they seldom 
come into play before the hoof is shod. The greatest tendency 
to contraction is seen in weak feet, which naturally possess long 



344 DEFOEMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 

toes and low heels, and in which the anterior and posterior 
margins, viewed from the sides, form an angle of less than 
45° with the earth. The more oblique the hoof, the more 
rapidly does contraction proceed, whatever the previous condi- 
tion of the heels. Despite every care in shoeing, contraction, 
may still occur in consequence of the altered direction of the 
walls at the heel and of the greatly increased load they are 
called on to bear. It is the excessive pressure on oblique and 
inw^ardly-directed heels, in the absence of counter-pressure on 
the sole and frog, which so rapidly produces the change in form.. 
At the same time, instead of the coronary and bearing margins 
of the heels being equally exposed to the expanding strain when 
weight is thrown on the foot, dilatation occurs only at the 
coronary margin, which is, therefore, continually in tension, 
while the bearing margin is fixed or even thrust from all sides 
towards the centre of the sole. A well-developed frog and 
strong bars, especially when exposed to the counter-pressure 
of the ground, prevent contraction. If, however, the parts 
are weak or diseased and the horny frog no longer bears 
weight there is nothing to oppose its progress. It has even 
been suggested that a small or diseased frog and weakened bars 
form the sole cause of contraction, a view in a measure sup- 
ported by the following examples. 

In severe thrush in flat feet the portion of the frog 
marked &, in fig. 35, may be lost. Under such circum-; 
stances the hoof contracts precisely to the extent left vacant 
by the portion lost. In upright hoofs, on the other hand, even 
when this part of the frog is lost, contraction does not occur. 
The cause of contraction is, therefore, not thrush, but the pres- 
sure of the body-weight, which forces the walls of the heel 
downwards, forwards, and inwards. On the same day two 
young carriage horses were shod for the first time. In one 
horse the front hoofs formed an angle of 40 and in the other 
of 55 with the ground. All four hoofs were sound. These, 
animals were shod in precisely the same way for a year, but, 
despite similar treatment, the flat hoof was visibly contracted 
as compared with the other. In this case the greater weight 
thrown on the posterior half of the hoof was not the only cause. 

A pair of trotting horses, of similar age, size, weight, and 
breed, had each weak fore-heels. In one case, however, the 



CAUSES OF CONTRACTEI* FOOT. 345- 

hoofs were fiat, in the other upright. The horse with tlat hoofs 
suffered from contraction, the other did not, the reason appear- 
ing to be simply that in upright hoofs the lieels bear less- 
weight than in liat hoofs. 

As a rule, when the formation of the limb as viewed from in 
front appears normal, both heels contract equally, but when the 
toes are turned in or out contraction is unequal. AVith turned- 
out toes the inner, with turned-in toes the outer, heel appears 
to suffer most. Once the heel contracts sufficiently to run 
downwards and inwards, the bodv-weio'ht ao-crravates the condi- 

' I/O oo 

tion. The heel becomes more and more oblique and the 
affected half of the frog diminishes in size. The os pedis wing 
of the same side also suffers and may undergo atrophy. The 
change progresses with a rapidity proportioned to the extent to- 
which the toes are turned out or in, and is sometimes very 
marked in flat feet. When contraction is limited to one side 
of the foot the bulbs of the heel may be displaced. 

(5) Exciting Causes. — 1. The first of these is defective shoe- 
ing, that is, not only the use of badly constructed shoes but 
faulty preparation of the feet. 

Of the latter class of errors perhaps the most serious is 
weakening the bars and frog by excessive paring, and next, 
thinning the sole. It may be laid down as a principle that to 
remove more than loose horn is a fault. Fortunately, excessive 
use of the knife is much less common than formerly ; at one 
time it was usual to pare the parts until the sole yielded to the 
pressure of the finger and spots of blood appeared on the frog. 
In-curved heels, which tend to compress the frog, should be 
carefully lowered without weakening the union between heel, 
frog, and bar (see fig. 331, a, h). When the heels are lowered 
overmuch the toe becomes disproportionately long and the axis 
of the foot distorted, so that worse effects are produced than 
by corresponding lowering of the toe. The direction of the 
foot axis must always be kept in view when paring the foot. 

In flat hoofs contraction may also be favoured by insufficient 
paring or by allowing the shoes to remain on for too long a 
time. 

Shoes with bearing surfaces inclined inwards at the heels 
and shoes fitted too wide, that is, in whicli the heels (of 
the shoe) do not cover those of the hoof, compress the latter. 



346 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 

The same effect is produced when the seating is continued 
Tight up to the heel of the shoe, especially if the bearing 
surface of the heel (of the hoof) rest in the seated out portion. 
Shoes with calkins favour contraction more than flat shoes. 
Finally, by shoeing young horses too early complete develop- 
ment of the hoof is checked and contraction favoured. 

2. Dryness. — Dryness of the horn diminishes its elasticity 
and volume. 

3. Insufficient Exercise. — If young horses, after being 
shod for the first time, are long confined to the stable, the 
posterior half of the hoof invariably contracts, while want of 
•exercise causes the front hoofs to become hard and dry and 
the hind-feet to be attacked with thrush. Circulation and 
■horn secretion are also less vigorous. In yearlings all these 
ill results are seen in an aggravated form. 

Prognosis. — Attention should first be directed to the state of 
the lateral cartilage, because, when this is ossified, no improve- 
ment in form need be expected. Next, the conformation of 
the limbs demands consideration. When the axis of the foot 
and the form of the hoof seen from the side are upright or 
-normal, the prognosis is favourable. If, on the other hand, the 
foot axis is oblique and the hoof flat, and if in addition the toes 
are turned out, the conditions all point to contraction, and in 
such cases the inner heel will be found wired in and the bulbs 
of the frog displaced. In old animals, which for years have 
suffered from contraction, the prognosis is unfavourable, because 
atrophy of the os pedis has often occurred, and complete 
recovery is impossible ; but in young animals even well-marked 
contraction, if uncomplicated, can frequently be cured without 
much difficulty. 

Preventive measures have occupied the attention of many 
investigators, but owing to the treatment of working horses 
and the various styles of shoeing, success has been distinctly 
limited. It is often useful, after correcting the form of 
the feet, to turn the horse out to grass without shoes, and later 
to apply a shoe which permits free movement of the posterior 
section of the foot and allows the frog to come to the ground. 
Treatment, therefore, comprises the application of a flat shoe, 
with a horizontal surface at the heels, non-interference with 
the frog, and abundant exercise on moist <]fround. The farm 



PROBABILITY OF RECOVERY AFTER CONTRACTIOX. 347 

horse seldom shows contracted hoof, for he is almost always on 
soft ground, and his soles are, therefore, exposed to the counter- 
pressure of the earth. Horses working in towns require this 
moisture to be supplied artificially, and it is sometimes necessary 
to use flat shoes and to fill the space between the limbs of the 
shoe with felt pads or to give a foot-bath occasionally. In 
severe cases bar shoes promote the growth of the frog and 
hinder contraction. 

The treatment aims at restoring the normal width of the 
hoof, and is best commenced by the use of poultices or warm 
baths which soften the horn. Thereafter several courses are 
open. 

(A) Eestoration of the counter-pressure of the ground. 
This may be regarded as the natural method of cure. Under 
it are comprised : — 

(1) Turning horses out to grass without shoes. 

(2) The use of tips. 

(3) Of shoes with thin heels. 

(4) Of heelless shoes with leather soles. 

(5) Of bar shoes with or without leather soles. 

(6) Of pads covering the entire sole. 

(B) The use of mechanical devices, which thrust or draw 
apart the heel, such as : — 

(7) De la Broue's slipper shoe. 

(8) Shoes with bar clips. 

(0) Operations on the hoof itself, either alone or in conjunc- 
tion with one or another of the methods already named. 

A. Methods of Ee-establishing the Counter-Pressure of 
THE Ground or Compensating for its Absence. 

1. Eest at grass, to be effectual, should be oontinued 
from four to six months, at any rate not less than three, 
and is not advisable for animals with very weak low heels. 
As a preparation, excess of horn should be removed, the wall 
rounded off, incurved heels, pressing on the ground, removed, 
and the point of the frog (to the commencement of the 
central groove) lowered to the same height as the bearing 
surface of the wall ; the limbs, on the other hand, may be 
left somewhat higher. The horse can tlien be turned out to 



348 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 

grass or, if this be impracticable, regularly exercised in a large-, 
shed. Light saddle or draught work on soft ground is useful. 

In horses with well-marked unilateral contraction, turning 
out to grass is inadvisable and it is better to trust to proper 
shoeing. 

2. The use of tips produces a somewhat similar effect to- 
turning out to grass, and can be recommended when the animal 
cannot be rested or when, on account of the condition of the 
ground, the hoof tends to contract in spite of light work. Two 
kinds of tips may be distinguished : the ordinary and the- 
modified Charlier ; both are well adapted for feet of the upright 
and ordinary shapes, but less for oblique feet. 

The methods given under 1 and 2 have the advantage of 
producing a more rapid growth of horn because of the natural 
distribution of weight in all parts of the ground surface of the 
hoof, which favours the normal movement of the parts and the 
circulation of blood. The final result is to increase the width 
and strength of the hoof at its posterior half. 

3. Shoes with thinned heels can be used both for upright 
feet and those of normal angle, but are less desirable in flat 
feet. They act by allowing the frog to come to the ground 
and bear a certain proportion of weight. 

4. Heelless shoes with or without leather soles are sufficient. 
in all cases of moderate contraction if the frog is strong enough 
to touch the ground, and their effect is more marked the more 
faulty the previous treatment and shoeing. Where the sole 
and bars have been weakened and the seatine^ out of the shoe 
has been continued to the heels, it is sufficient to round the 
toe and to apply a shoe with a perfectly horizontal bearing 
surface at the heels to produce in two or three shoeings a 
marked improvement. The application of a leather sole will 
hasten recovery. 

5. Ear shoes, with or without leather soles. Where the 
frog is healthy and the bar can take a bearing on it, a leather 
sole is scarcely required. Should the bearing surface of the 
hoof be defective or broken away, or should corns or sand- 
cracks co-exist with contraction, the ordinary, or the three- 
quarter bar shoe, is perhaps to be preferred. It is fitted close, 
at the toe and quarter and shghtly ' sprung '" at the heels. 
Expansion of the hoof is greatly assisted by carefully filling. 



TKEAT.MENT OF COXTRACTIOX. 349 

the lateral and central furrows of the frog with some plastic 
composition. 

If, however, the frog is attacked with thrush, or if other 
■diseases of the hoof accompany defects in the bearing surface of 
the wall, a simple leather sole and stopping are more useful. 

The bar shoe with leather sole can also be used in uni- 
lateral contraction with displacement of the bulbs. As the 
€hief object is to restore the bulbs of the frog to their normal 
position and to thrust outwards the contracted wall, it must 
be borne in mind that the upward displacement of the bulbs 
results from excessive and irregularly distributed weight. 
Various authors and practitioners recommend lowering the 
affected heel wall until there is a clear space between it and 
the shoe, thinking thus to allow the affected bulb to sink, but 
experience shows that this often fails in its object. Lowering 
the affected heel is not sufficient ; it is of much greater im- 
portance to throw the weight of the body on the wall of the 
opposite quarter and heel. To effect this the hoof should be 
pared and shod so as to bring the higher side to the ground a 
little earlier than the other, though it is necessary to avoid 
distorting the axis of the foot, and to fit the shoe close to the 
outline of the sound heel, but somewhat broader and longer 
than that of the unhealthy one. If this style of tread cannot 
be produced by trimming the hoof alone, the branches of the 
shoe can be made of unequal thickness. A leather sole with 
plenty of stojoping will greatly assist recovery. 

6. Filling the hoof witli cement is a slow method, and it is 
absolutely necessary that the cement should thoroughly cover 
the limbs of the froo. Straw or cork soles or Hartmann's 
rubber pads are to be preferred on account of their continued 
pressure, though precautions must be taken against thrush. 
The gutta-percha composition may advantageously be tried ; 
being perfectly plastic it moulds itself to all the depressions of 
the ground surface of the hoof, and exercises an exceedingly 
even and, therefore, efficacious pressure. In the treatment of 
unilateral contraction the bar shoe and leather sole are to be 
preferred to all other measures. Plenty of tow must be used 
in the furrow of the frog on the diseased side, so as to main- 
tain constant pressure. 



360 DEFOKMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 

B. Mechanical Methods. 

7. De la Broue's slipper shoe tends to expand the entire wall 
of the hoof. It is claimed that the bearing margin lying on 
an oblique surface spreads outwards under the pressure of the 
horse's body-weight, and that the shoe is useful in all cases of 
contraction where the coronary margin is wider than the bear- 
ing margin of the hoof. It exposes the white line, however, 
to excessive strain, and is, therefore, no longer used in this 
form, especially as there are other and less dangerous methods 
of expanding the hoof. By confining the outward slope of the 
bearing surface to the heel (or heels, when both sides of the 
foot are affected), it, however, renders good service. Is"ever- 
theless great care is needed in determining the exact amount 
of slope, and the distance to which it should extend, otherwise 
severe lameness results. It is usually sufficient if the outer 
margin of the hoof surface is ^ to -|- inch lower than the 
inner, and this oblique surface should only extend as far 
forwards as the wall of the heel forms with the ground an 
acute angle. The same principle may, of course, be applied 
to the heels of bar shoes. 

8. Shoes with har-dips. — {a) De Fay's is a flat shoe with a 
clip at the inner margin of either heel. The clips should lie 
in the lateral furrows of the frog, exactly at the points where 
the wall is reflected to form the bars. They should fit evenly 
on the bars, but should not extend to the bottom of the lateral 
furrow of the frog. The foot surface at the heel must be 
absolutely horizontal. The shoe should be cooled and nailed 
on, and the dilator (fig. 334) then adjusted with its cheeks 
between the heels, which are expanded by turning the screw 
h. This forcibly widens the hoof. The method requires the 
greatest care, and is certainly not often applicable. On the 
first occasion it is sufficient to dilate the parts -^ to ^ inch, 
and nothing further should be done until the space gained 
can be filled with horn, that is, in from ten to fourteen 
days. 

(p) Hartmann's expanding shoe (fig. 335) is narrow, and 
possesses one or more saw-cuts on its inner border. When it 
is desired to dilate the hoof equally, these cuts are made at 



METHODS OF DILATING THE FOOT. 



351 



the centre opposite the toe-clip, but when contraction havs 
ttaken place at the heel, the cuts are placed towards the side of 
the shoe at which contraction is visible. 

(c) Einsiedel's automatic hoof- expanding shoe (fig. 336) is 




Fig. 334.-Instiument for expanding De Fay's shoe, a, the iron cheeks which fit t>etween the 
heels of the shoe ; b, square head on the right and left-handed screw, for taking tne Key. 



an ordinary flat shoe with bar-clips, the bearing surfaces of 
which are moderately inclined outwards. After accurately 
fitting, but before nailing the shoe, it is advisable to dilate the 



352 



DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 



heels about | inch. The animal's own weight is the expanding 
power. It produces its effect slowly but surely. In uni- 




EiG. 335.-.Slioe for expanding the hoof, a shows the point where the bar-clips should come. 



lateral contraction the bearing surface of the clip only inclines 
outwards on the affected side. Shoes with bar-clips should 




J^'IG. 336.— Eiiisiedel's shoe, seen from behind. 

not be used when the heels are very low and when the lateral 
clefts of the frog are correspondingly shallow. 

Other special shoes for promoting expansion of the foot are 
described in the next two pages. 




Fig. 337. — Fullered fore shoe (for harness horse), with frog plate. 
Made from 1 x ^ inch iron. 







Fig. 338.— Tip for producing frog pressure. Made from | x | inch iron. 
To face p. 353.] 



SHOES FOR PRODUCING FROG PRESSURE. 353 



FULLERED FOEE SHOE (FOR HARNESS HORSE) 
WITH FROG PLATE (Fig. 337). 

Made from 1 x ^ inch iron. 

To obtain frog pressure without interfering with the animal's 
paces, and to widen the foot and to promote the growth of a 
strong healthy frog, are the objects of this shoe. 

Care must be taken, when fitting the shoe, that the frog 
plate has a good bearing on the frog itself, otherwise it will 
prove ineffective. To ensure a bearing, it is sometimes neces- 
sary to rivet pieces of leather on the frog plate, so as to raise 
it to the needful height. 



TIP FOR PRODUCING FROG PRESSURE 
(Fig. 338). 

Made from J X -J- inch iron. 

The tip is made in the same manner as the ordinary 
pattern, the frog plate being made, and welded on after- 
wards. The clip is then drawn, and the tip is ready to lit 
to the foot. 

The plate must take a good bearing on the frog ; sometimes 
it is necessary to rivet on pieces of leather in order to secure 
frog pressure. 

The above tip is very useful for horses having one foot 
smaller than the other. Its application will often expand the 
contracted foot to a marked degree, but it requires care in 
fitting. The quarters must be fitted full, to prevent the tip 
sinking into foot at this point, and sphtting away the wall. 
The frog plate should be a trifle shorter than the animal's 
froGf, otherwise the toe of the hind-foot is liable to catch it, 
and tear off the tip. 



354 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 



PEOFESSOK F. SMITH'S FOKE SHOE FOR 
EXPANDING CONTEACTED FEET 

(Fig. 339). 

Made from -f X J inch iron. 

The diagram sufficiently explains the construction of the 
shoe. 

By means of the screw, steady, but slight, pressure is exer- 
cised on the bars. Neither Mr Dollar nor Mr Wheatley has 
used this shoe, but it has been highly recommended by Pro- 
fessor Smith, who kindly lent the shoe from which the illus- 
tration was made. 

It will be seen to closely resemble Fourre's shoe for the 
same purpose. 




Fig. 339. — Professor F. Smith's fore slioe for expanding contracted feet. 
Made from f x ^ inch iron. 



[To face p. 354. 



SURGICAL OPEKATION FOR CONTRACTED FOOT. 355 



C. Operative Interference in Contraction. 

(a) Thinning the wall of the toe was recommended by 
Dominik, but is of little real value, the improvement noted 
probably resulting from the animal's being turned out to grass 
without shoes. 

(h) Colhn's method consists in making a groove about 
|- inch broad and as deep as the sensitive wall, beginning 
f inch from the skin of the coronet and running parallel with it. 
From this he carries two v/ider grooves as far as the lower margin 
of the hoof, the posterior groove being about | inch from the 
heels, the anterior running obliquely backwards ; its highest 
point being about 1-J- inches, its lowest about J inch from the 
posterior furrow. The wall of the quarter behind the anterior 
furrow is lowered with the rasp until it no longer touches the 
shoe. Where both quarters are diseased, the same procedure 
is adopted on either side. A bar shoe is then applied. When 
the frog is insufficiently developed to afford the shoe proper 
support, a leather, gutta-percha, or vulcanised pad is applied, 
and the grooves are filled with ointment, with which the entire 
hoof is dressed. If movement is painful, the feet can be 
placed in a foot-bath, and poultices applied, after which lame- 
ness soon disappears. Collin's method undoubtedly produces 
good results when the animal can be rested for several months ; 
otherwise, the next in order should be tried. 

(c) Thinning the, Wall of the Contracted Heel. — A portion of 
the coronary margin, about ^ inch in breadth, should be left 
intact. A bar shoe is then applied, which should not touch 
the heels by about \ inch. The limbs of the frog should, 
however, take a good bearing on the bar of the shoe. If 
necessary, the frog may be filled up with artificial horn com- 
position or a leather sole, and plenty of stopping applied. To 
prevent drying and hardening, the exposed parts should be 
dressed with a tampon of tow or wood wool saturated with tar, 
and lightly bandaged. The results are good ; the horn of the 
heels grows in a better direction, and lameness soon dis- 
appears. 

{d) Simple iTwision below the Coronet. — Three-quarters of an 
inch below the meeting of hair and hoof, parallel with it and 



366 



DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 



to an extent corresponding to the contracted wall, an incision 
is made with a searcher, saw, or an instrument resembling a 
drawing chisel, the horn being removed as deep as the laminal 
sheath. The groove is filled with wax. The further treat- 
ment may comprise any of the methods given under A. A 
bar shoe taking a good bearing on the frog succeeds best if 
the horse cannot be completely rested. 

The effect is shown by the upper margin of the incision 
overlapping the lower in consequence of expansion at the 
coronet. Cure results from the portion of the wall above the 
incision growing down in the normal direction. 

Many other methods have been suggested, such as those of 
Bracy Clark, Coleman, Fulch, Barbier, Beaufils, etc., but cannot 
be recommended. 

{B) Weak heels (figs. 340 and 341) are sometimes developed 
to an extraordinary degree. Being too weak to carry the body- 




Fia 840.— Contracted hoof from unshod horse. This growth resulted from want of move- 
ment and neglect of the feet, a, excessively long heels ; h, clefts in the region of the 
white line. 



weight when the horse is shod, they grow inward over the 
posterior parts of the horny sole and bars; indeed in some 
cases over the limbs of the frog, and cause bruising, which we 
recognise as corns. The hoof becomes narrower, and falls 
within the definition of ' contracted hoof.' 

Weak heels are only too common in thin, shelly feet, and 



WEAK HEELS. 



357 



when occurring in flat hoofs render the animal useless for 
rapid work on stone-paved streets. 

The best application is a bar shoe and leather sole, the frog 
resting on the bar, but the heels being kept clear of the shoe. 
The nail holes should be confined to the anterior two-thirds of 
the shoe. Pads, etc., are of little service. 

(C) Local Contraction, or Contraction at the Coronary 
Margin. — Instead of the wall of the heel running in a straight 
line from the coronet to the bearing margin, it pursues a 
curved course (fig. 342, a). This contraction affects either one 




Fig. 341.— Left fure-foot with weak heels. 
The dotted lines indicate the portion 
to be removed. 



Fig. 342. — Foot with local contraction. 
a, the contracted spot. 



or both heels ; the hoof appears as if drawn in by the applica- 
tion of a cord, and its outline has been compared to an hour- 
glass. Occasionally, instead of this wide curve, it presents 
local deformities, but the latter are most common in flat hoofs. 

The horse goes in a shuffling style, or is positively lame, 
especially at a trot. Pressing on the hoof with pincers pro- 
duces pain, as do light blows over the contracted portion of 
the wall. 

Broad, flat feet are especially disposed to this form of 
contraction, though it is also found in hoofs of normal character 
and in those with turned-out or turned-in toes. In upright 
hoofs, however, it never appears to such an extent as to produce 



358 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF, 

lameness, though even hoofs with very strong walls do not 
always escape it. 

The comparative frequence after the first shoeing of this 
form of contraction in horses which work on hard dry ground 
leaves little doubt that desiccation of the hoof and want of 
counter-pressure are its principal causes, though these again 
depend upon the artificial conditions set up by shoeing. All 
who have carefully studied the question agree that the change 
in the normal direction of the heel wall is produced by inter- 
ference with the expansion of the hoof. Dominik, who first 
described the condition, refers it to interference with expan- 
sion at the coronet. The tendency to contraction is, therefore, 
greatest at the coronary margin. Fambach regards it as due 
partly to excessive obliquity of the heel wall, and to removal 
of support from the frog. In this connection it may be pointed 
out that almost all hoofs that show local contraction of the heel 
wall are otherwise sound. The contraction at the coronary 
margin probably results as follows : — By lifting the frog clear 
of the ground, the shoe more or less prevents expansion of the 
bearing margin of the heel. The coronary margin, being the 
most yielding part, spreads outwards under the continuous strain 
of the body-weight. The direction of the coronary papillae is 
changed, the horn they secrete takes a more perpendicular 
course, and the wall, previously quite straight, shows, after 
eight to ten days, an apparent slight contraction opposite the 
lower third of the coronary groove. By grovv^th from the 
coronet the contracted part is thrust downwards ; finally it 
reaches the centre of the heel wall, where it produces an 
appearance resembling an hour-glass. Arrived at the bearing 
margin it gradually disappears just as it had appeared above. 
The effects, however, continue, for on close observation it will 
be seen that the entire portion of wall involved has become 
more upright, so that instead of pointing outwards and back- 
wards it now points forwards and inwards. In other words, 
the heel walls previously diverged ; now they converge. The 
hoof has become narrower at the bearing margin of the heels. 
When the weight is greater on one side and the hoof very 
flat, well-marked furrows may appear on one or other heel wall, 
as can be proved by comparative measurements of the hoof 
immediately before the first shoeing and a few weeks or months 



CONTRACTION AT COKONARY MARGIN OF HOOF. 359 

later. Eest in the stable will produce similar results. The 
causes are shoeing, deficient frog support, desiccation, and 
insufficient exercise. 

The prognosis is favourable and lameness disappears when 
the contraction has grown down as far as the lower third of 
the wall. When it affects only the posterior part of the heel 
it can be removed in two or three shoeings, but if the feet are 
flat and the contraction extends further forward it may persist 
for a much longer time. Treatment consists in paring the 
hoof, so as to produce a level tread and straight foot axis ; 
the use of shoes of a thickness proportioned to the animal's size 
and work, and such as will allow the frog to bear weight. 
The bearing surface of the shoe should be horizontal at the 
heels ; the other portions may be horizontal or inclined slightly 
inwards, depending on whether the sole is concave, flat, or con- 
vex. If the frog is well developed and projects below the wall 
an ordinary thin-heeled shoe is most suitable, as it allows tlie 
frog to touch the ground. If, however, the frog is low or 
badly developed, a bar shoe is preferable. With this the neces- 
sary frog pressure can generally be produced, even when the 
frog is affected with thrush. In such case the frog is cleansed 
and disinfected, well smeared with tar or Venice turpentine, 
and the bar shoe, provided with a leather sole and plenty of 
stopping, nailed on. Xeedless to say any, portions of the wall 
which appear painful must be eased, that is, where it is 
impracticable to sufficiently seat out the shoe, a slight amount 
must be removed from the bearing surface directly below, before 
affixing the shoe. 

In cases of even well-marked lameness thinning of the heel 
wall and four to eight days continued poulticing is often 
sufficient. The hoof should be kept moist and the animal 
exercised at a walk. 

This treatment is not directed towards preventing contraction 
at the bearing surface, but only aims at restoring the natural 
counter-pressure of the ground and thus promoting expansion of 
the hoof. Other means of reheving the heels and forcing the 
frog to bear a certain amount of weight, like the use of tips, 
fillincr tlie hoof with elastic cement, etc., are sometimes found 
advantageous. So far as its occurrence, position, and treatnicnt 
are concerned, contraction of the coronary margin may be 



360 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 

regarded as a modification of ordinary contraction, for the main 
differences between them are— the former affects flat, spreading 
feet and only the extreme posterior part of the heel resion, 
whilst ordinary contraction is commonest in upright feet and 
affects both quarters and heels. Many other sub-divisions of 
contracted hoof are described by German writers but have 
little interest for English readers, the practical advantages of 
such classification being almost nil. 

5. The Laterally Distorted Hoof 

is produced by one quarter and heel being upright, while the 
other takes a slanting direction. Such a hoof, therefore, when 
cut through its longer diameter consists of two unequal portions 
It has previously been remarked that oblique limbs usually 
have obhque hoofs, which may, therefore, be termed normal 
obhque hoofs and which should not be regarded as pathological 
In determming whether a hoof of this description really is 
pathological, attention should be paid to the direction of' the 
walls when viewed from behind and the width of the back of 
the hoof. When one-half of the wall runs from above down- 
wards and inwards, ^.6., towards the middle line of the hoof and 
the corresponding half of the frog is smaller than its fellow the 
hoof IS abnormal. The condition, in fact, may be regarded 
as unilateral contraction. Similar distortion is produced by 
faulty paring of the hoof. 

^ Causes.— WhUst in normal oblique hoofs the primary cause 
IS almost always bad conformation of the limb, and consequent 
unequal distribution of weight, in pathological oblique hoofs the 
same unequal distribution of weight is aided by excessive par- 
ing or wear of the upright half of the wall. All faults in 
shoeing which favour contraction promote this condition 
especially when they affect the upright walk One of the 
mostjertile causes is neglect of the hoof during the first years- 

The degree to which this malformation maybe developed 
varies immensely. In some, the upright wall is drawn inwards, 
and the corresponding limb of the frog almost entirely atrophied ^ 
m others, the (previously) normal wall may be affected as well 
being bent outwards and exhibiting a convex surface 



TREATMENT OF LATERAL DLSTORTION. 361 

Prognosis. — When the distortion of the hoof is a result of 
the deformation of the limb, and the old shoe shows com- 
paratively level wear, the condition is not serious. If, however, 
the hoof is much deformed, the horn of the wall weak, the wall 
itself curved inwards, and if, in addition, other disease exists, 
improvement is difficult and affected animals are of little use 
for work on hard roads, least of all at a rapid pace. 

Hoofs so deformed show a great tendency to disease, the up- 
right wall always suffering first ; corns and sandcracks are of 
frequent occurrence. 

The style of shoeing depends on the degree of disease and on 
the conformation of the limb, the two chief objects being tO' 
remove or minimise existing defects and to promote the return 
of the foot to its normal shape. 

The hoof must be trimmed so as to make the tread level, 
the bars and sole of the upright side being left stronger than 
those of the opposite, for a strong sole and well developed bar 




Fig. 343.— Bar shoe for laterally distorted hoof, a, the upright (contracted) wall ; 6, the 
spot over which the hoof is ' sprung.' 

prevent contraction of the wall better than any special shoe. 
Flat shoes {i.e., without heels) are most suitable, because they 
favour a level tread and equalise wear. 

Too much weight may be thrown on the upright wall, as 
happens when, during the extension of the fetlock joint, the 
fetlock, instead of remaininc^ behind the middle line of the hoof, 
tends to assume a position above the contracted coronary mar- 
gin of the heel. In such case an attempt should be made to- 
relieve the contracted wall of weight. The hoof is, therefore, 
trimmed so that the upright wall comes in contact with the 
ground before its fellow when the animal is walked. Unless 



362 



DEFOEMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 



striking is to be feared the limb of the shoe covering the up- 
right wall should be fitted as full as possible, the extreme edge 
being perpendicularly beneath the coronary margin of the con- 
tracted wall, whilst that on the sound side should exactly fit 
the wall. 

A bar shoe is even more useful, especially when the bulbs of 
the frog are displaced ; the shoe, however, should be fitted as 
described and the bar should take a bearing on the outer limb 
of the frog (fig. 343). 

Pathologically oblique hoofs may also be treated with De 
Fay's dilating shoe (see ' De Fay's shoe '), the notches on the 
inner margin of the shoe being made at the same side as the 
deformed wall, so that the effects may be confined to that side. 
If the hoof has been pared unevenly and the disproportion in 
the height of the two walls cannot be removed by trimming 
the horn, the parts may be built up by using some gutta-percha 
-composition. 

Once improvement occurs and the upright wall assumes the 




Fig. 344.— Pdght hind-foot of foal with three-quarter shoe of unequal thickness. The foot 
IS thus tipped inwards, h, untouched bar ; c, bar cut back. 

same direction as the limb, while the posterior portions of the 
hoof are of nearly normal width, treatment should cease, as its 
continuance may produce other evils. 

The distortion of the hoof sometimes seen in unshod young 
horses cannot always be cured by paring and rasping the hoof, 



LATEEAL DISTORTION AND CURVATURE OF HOOF. 



363 



■and a special shoe becomes necessary. The heel is thick on 
the same side as the contracted wall, and the shoe gradually 
becomes thinner from this point to its termination (fig. 344). 
In severe cases the shoe need only extend as far as the centre 
of the quarter (three-quarter shoe). 



6. The Curved Hoof. 

The form of this hoof is well seen in fig. 345. One side is 
bent outwards, the other inwards, so that when viewed from in 
front they respectively appear convex and concave. Exagger- 
ated cases of this distortion are uncommon. 



"oo" 




Fig. 345.— Right fore-foot showing lateral curvature. 

The causes are unequal distribution of weight and unequal 
wear ; in unshod horses and foals neglect of the hoof is a fertile 
-cause. The curvature is often accompanied by contraction. In 
older (shod) horses the same condition may be produced by 
injudicious trimming of the hoof and by shoes badly made or 
fitted. If, for instance, one or other quarter is left too high 
for several shoeings, the corresponding side of the wall (fig. 
346, a) becomes convex, whilst its fellow tends to become con- 
cave (b). Such distortion is favoured, for instance, by the outer 
half of the shoe being fitted too narrow in comparison with the 
circumference of the hoof and the opposite portion too wide. 
The bowing of the hoof always sets in from above. 

Prognosis. — As a rule in curved hoofs the column formed 



364 



DEFOEMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 



by the pastern, coronet, and pedal bones is twisted to one side, 
i.e., there is lateral distortion of the foot axis, the greater angle 
being directed towards the convex side of the hoof. In conse- 
quence the weight of the body is unequally distributed over the 
articular surfaces of the coronet and pedal joints, there is a 
tendency to bruising of the bones, while the lateral ligaments 
of these joints are exposed to strain. 

The chief indication in treatment is to restore the normal 
position of the hoof. The convex half of the wall (fig. 346, a) is 
usually too high and too narrow, the opposite half (6) too low 
and too wide. The indications for fitting are, therefore, plain. 
The bearing surface of the shoe corresponding to the high and 
narrow side should be as wide as possible. A straight-edge 




I'lG. 346. — Cross section of a right fore-foot, sliowing lateral curvature. The horse turns his- 
toes outwards, a, convex outer wall ; b,'coYiCSi\e inner wall. The line c-d shows how 
much too high is the outer wall. The lines c-e and g-h show the points to which the 
outer and inner limbs of the shoe must respectively be pi'odviced ; / indicates the amount 
of horn to be removed. 

laid on the convex half of the wall only touches it in the 
centre, and the point at which it meets the (imaginary) pro- 
longation of the bearing surface shows how far the bearing 
surface of the shoe should extend outwards. The opposite half 
of the wall exhibits a concavity at the centre. With the- 
straight-edge it is easy to determine how much of the lower 
margin must be removed before fitting the shoe. 

The cure of this deformity requires considerable time. 



CHAPTER III. 



SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. 



1. Sandcracks. 



A SANDCEACK is a fissure ia the wall rnnnhig parallel with the 
direction of the horn fibres. Its position, lenc^th, and depth 




Fig. 347.— Hoof showing saiidcracks at coronary and at bearing margin, and a sandcrack 
extending throughout the wall. The latter exhibits a nail inserted for the purpose of 
' riveting ' the crack (semi-diagrammatic). 

are all of importance in determining its probable results and 
the proper treatment to adopt. 

According to position we distinguish sandcraeks of the toe, 
quarter, heel, and bar. Some affect the coronary margin, some 
the bearing margin, while some extend from one margin to the 
other of the wall ; some are superficial, others penetrate the 
thickness of the horn wall. There is little difficulty in recog- 
nising sandcrack, except when a slight fissure has just com- 
menced at the coronet and the hoof has been dressed with an 
ointment or when the crack has been filled up. To avoid 
overlooking such cases the hoof should be thoroughly cleansed 
before examination. Deep cracks which extend from top to 
bottom of the wall are easily seen, because bleeding often occurs 
when the animal is worked, and lameness is a frequent though 
not a constant feature. When of old standing, and involving 
the entire thickness of the wall, sandcraeks show prominent 
edges, which sometimes overlap and which are very noticeable. 



366 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. 

The depth of the crack may be measured with a nail beaten 
flat at the point. Some sandcracks are ' open,' others are 
' closed ' or only slightly open. 

The causes comprise : injuries destroying a portion of the 
coronary band and thus leading to changes in the character of 
the wall ; excessive tension at the coronary margin in upright 
feet (producing sandcrack of the toe) and in flat and con- 
tracted hoofs (sandcrack of the quarter). Fissuring is favoured 
by weakness of the wall, drying of the horn, bad fitting of tha 
shoe, ' springing ' the heels when shoeing with ordinary shoes^ 
in the case of carriage horses by trotting work on hard, rough, 
or frozen streets, and in riding horses by trotting, galloping, or 
jumping with a heavy rider. Sandcracks sometimes start 
from the bearing margin, as when horses are turned out without 
shoes and without the hoofs having been rounded off; when 
the bearing surface of the shoe is uneven, and when the 
counter-sinks allow the nails to penetrate too far or when the 
nails themselves are too large. 

Prognosis. — Sandcracks vary in gravity according to their 
cause and position. The most troublesome, perhaps, are those 
resulting from excessive strain on the coronary margin produced 
by unequal distribution of weight, because recovery then 
depends upon the downward growth of an unbroken mass of horn 
from the coronary band, and this again depends upon the length 
of the crack. The animal may be useless for months, for a 
time, in fact, sufficient for the hoof to be entirely renewed. 
During this period fresh cracks may develop if attempts are 
made to use the horse for trotting, galloping, or jumping, and 
again postpone recovery or seriously imperil it. Cracks result- 
ing from wounds of the coronary band are also grave, especially 
when a portion of the horn-secreting structure is destroyed. 
On the other hand, those due to drying of the horn or to bad 
shoeing are unimportant, provided the hoofs are well-shaped 
and sound. The same is true of cracks at the bearing surface. 

Treatment. — Eecovery is assisted by fixing the opposing 
margins of the crack firmly in position, thus preventing the 
new horn from being torn through. Immobilisation of the 
edges is not, however, the principal point, and it is much more 
important to attend to the distribution of weight in the hoof 
and to improvement of its form. 



METHODS OF FIXING TOGETHER EDGES OF SANDCKACK. 367 

The margins of the crack may be fixed together by one of 
the following methods : — 

1. By means of clips, wliich may be either bought ready 
made or fashioned out of thin rod iron by the farrier himself. 
A depression to receive the clip is made in the horn by apply- 
ing a specially shaped red-hot iron. The clip is then placed 
in position and the ends pressed inwards by means of special 
pincers. The operation should be performed while the animal 
stands on the foot, and the clip, which should be sunk almost 
flush with the wall, applied immediately after removing the 
iron, because then the horn is soft and allows the points to 




&^ 4-D (l=i> 

Figs. 348, 349. 

penetrate, while it ensures the clip holding firmly. According^ 
to the length of the crack one to three clips may be applied. 
This method is only applicable to sandcracks around the toe 
and in strong hoofs. 

2. By metal plates (fig. 351), fastened with small wood 
screws corresponding in length to the thickness of the outer 
sheath of the wall. For quarter and heel cracks shorter but 
broader plates are used, in which the screws are applied one 
below the other. The plate is slightly countersunk before 
being screwed on, by heating to a dull red and pressing it on 
the proper spot. Plates can be used for any kind of crack, 
except those at the extreme ends of the heel. They appear tO' 
have given satisfaction. 

3. By rivets. One or two specially prepared horse nails are 
driven through the borders of the crack and afterwards clenched 
in the usual way. The operation is rendered easier by boring 
or burning the holes for the rivets beforehand. This is the 
oldest process and if carefully performed is very successful, but 
can be employed only at the toe and quarters. 

4. By means of the special teethed sandcrack band invented 
by Koster. The hoof is cleansed, the edges of the crack, if 
necessary, smoothed, and grooves for inserting the jaws of th& 



368 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. 

band burnt with a special iron. The band is then inserted 
from above in the grooves and driven downwards to close the 
crack. This band holds exceedingly well, and in consequence 
of the toothed edge it never slips back ; nevertheless, it some- 
times has a tendency to produce fresh splits in the horn at the 
spot where the grooves have been burnt. 

5. By means of sandcrack straps (fig. 350). These are 
intended to hold the edges of the crack firmly together. The 
broad, enlarged, and concave portion of the strap lies around 
the coronet. A mass of tow moistened with some fatty 
material is placed below it and the whole drawn together. 
The strap is removed every three or four days, the crack 



I 




Fig. 350.— Sandcrack strap. 

■cleansed and a fresh tampon of tow applied. The advantages 
stated by Schleg are : (1) it allows of permanent application of 
fatty materials, which render the horn more elastic, and assist 
the normal growth from the coronet, while it prevents the 
separation of the edges ; (2) it can be used along with any other 
method of fixation ; and (3) it can be used as a preventive on 
brittle hoofs. It is, however, difficult to draw it sufiiciently 
tight. 

6. By means of broad linen tape. After applying a mass of 
tow moistened with tar, fat, or oil to the coronet, the tape is 
moistened and wound firmly round the upper part of the hoof. 
The ends are tied or sewn together, and the whole is then 
smeared with tar. This dressing, which acts somewhat like 
the strap, remains in position until the next shoeing. 

7. To check the continued opening and closing of the crack, 
a shoe with ' bar-clips,' fitted closely to the bar of the foot on 
either side, has been successfully employed. By diminishing 
expansion at the heels, this shoe lessens movement in all other 
parts and prevents the sensitive tissues being nipped between 
the margins of the crack. 



USE OF STRAPS, TAPE, ETC., FOK SANDCRACK. 



169 



The methods 1 to 4 are applicable where the crack 
follows the direction of the horny fibres, but are of no value 
where the margins are irregular, zigzag, wavy, or overlapping. 
In the latter case the parts should be thoroughly thinned with 
a rasp or fine searcher, but bleeding should be avoided. The 
animal is then shod and the strap (5) or linen tape applied. 
All these methods act by bringing the edges of the crack 
■together, and minimising movement at the coronet. 

Grosswendt in 1888 suggested another method for use in spe- 

■ cial cases. As the crack was open and filled with granulations 

from the sensitive parts, riveting would have been useless (or 

' worse). Grosswendt, therefore, applied a wooden wedge, thrust 

between the edges of the crack, thus holding it open. With 

suitable local treatment he effected a cure. 



(a) Sandcrack originating at the GoTonary Margin 

is the form most commonly seen. In seeking the best method 
of shoeing it should be borne in mind that everything which 
renders the hoof broad and strong, improves its form, and 
relieves the diseased portion of the wall of pressure, favours 
recovery. Accordingly, tips, dilating shoes, bar shoes, and stop- 
pings which cause counter-pressure on the sole assist recovery. 




riG. 351.— Hoof shod for sandcrack of the toe. 



Fig. 352.— Hoof shod with bar shoe for 
quarter crack. The part of the wall 
which has been ' eased' is sliown l)y 
dotted lines. 



1. Toe sandcrack is best treated by trimming the hoof so 
as to give a level tread and by applying a shoe with two toe- 
clips. The nail holes should be punched somewhat further 
back than usual. The edges of the crack may be fixed together 
by metal plates (fig. 351) or by the insertion of a few rivets or 

2 a 



370 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HOEN. 

special clips. The choice of these must be determined by the 
position and character of the crack. Bar shoes are only resorted 
to when the bearing surface of the wall is defective. 

2. Quarter and heel cracks are best treated by the use of 
bar shoes. Before nailing on, the portion of the wall below 
and behind the crack should be lowered so as to relieve it of 
weight. The exact area from which to remove horn can be 
judged as follows. The crack is prolonged in imagination in 
the same direction as the horn fibres until it reaches the 
bearing surface. From the upper end of the crack an im- 
aginary vertical line is dropped to the bearing surface of the 
hoof. The portion comprised between these two lines is then 
lowered sufficiently to prevent any pressure on that part 
until the next time of shoeing (fig. 352). Another, and per- 
haps preferable, method is to seat out the shoe at the points 
indicated, leaving the wall untouched. 

The same rule applies to cracks at the heel, even when 
the imaginary vertical line falls behind the bearing surface. 
Stoppings are of value because they convey a portion of the 
body-weight to the sole and frog, lead to expansion of the hoof, 
and diminish concussion during movement, all of which tend 
to prevent the new horn from cracking. 

When the crack is widely open and the frog small, or when 
the hoof is contracted, a shoe with bar-clips may be employed. 

If the edges of the crack are irregular or overlapping, all 
projecting parts should be removed. To assist the growth of 
sound wall and diminish the tendency to fresh fissures, the 
upper portions of the wall near the crack should be thinned, 
the hoof kept moist, and a sandcrack boot or tape applied. 
French clips are not advisable in cracks of the quarter, and 
are distinctly injurious in cracks of the heel. To prevent 
the fissure extending further, a furrow may be burnt or cut 
at its extreme end, and at right angles to its general direction. 
The furrow is made at the lower end of cracks starting from 
the coronet, and at the upper end of those starting from the 
bearing margin of the wall. 

Blisters of cantharides or biniodide of mercury are some- 
times applied to the coronet to stimulate the growth of horn. 
The wall secreted is found to be thicker than before. Animals 
suffering from sandcrack often recover without treatment if 



SANDCRACK OF CORONARY MARGIN AND BARS. 371 

turned out barefooted, though an exception must be made as 
regards those with sandcrack starting from the bearing 
surface. 

If during the first few days there is inflammation and lame- 
ness cold poultices may be applied. When lameness is absent 
horses may be used for slow work. Carriage and riding horses 
should not be used at a fast pace until at least half an inch of 
sound horn has grown. 

(b) Sandcrack of the Bars 

nearly always results from deformity of the heels, produced by 
contraction or by allowing the heels to become too high. It 
almost invariably affects fore-feet and is generally accompanied 
by corns. When it exposes the sensitive structures, superficial 
inflammation and lameness supervene. The limb is knuckled 
over at the fetlock during rest, and unless treatment is at once 
commenced, the inflammation extends to deeper-seated struc- 
tures as far even as the plantar cushion, the bulb of the heel on 
the affected side shows tumefaction and severe lameness results, 
which demands the attention of the veterinary surgeon. 

The bars form part of the most yielding portion of the hoof. 
The crack alternately opens and shuts during movement and 
tends to increase in length, while the sensitive parts become 
irritated and inflamed. By paring the parts after removal of 
the shoe, the split is seen as a black line, which exudes a 
little of the grey horn pus, or, in severe cases, even blood. 
Treatment should be directed towards producing a fresh growth 
of sound horn. The borders of the crack are to be entirely 
removed, the surrounding horn thoroughly thinned, and the 
affected heel wall relieved of all shoe pressure. The heel wall 
is lowered and a bar shoe with leather sole and stopping 
applied. Eemoval of the margins of the crack may leave a 
deep groove, especially in upright hoofs. If the bottom of 
this groove appears moist, a little tampon of tow moistened 
with tincture of myrrh or aloes is inserted, and the space 
filled with wax. The crack gradually closes, if due precautions 
be taken. 



372 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. 

(c) Cracks at the Bearing Margin of the Wall 

are commonest in unshod horses, and result from excessive 
outward strain on this part. They can generally be prevented 
by rounding off the lower edge of the wall with a rasp before 
turning the horse out. In shoeing, such cracks may result 
from the use of large nails, especially when the nail holes are 
punched too near the outer edge of the shoe. 

Every crack at the coronet may in time extend to the 
bearing surface. To prevent such cracks in unshod horses it 
is usually sufficient to shoe them, but in horses already shod 
attention must be given to the position of the nail holes and 
the use of thinner nails. The bearing surface in the neigh- 
bourhood of the crack should be lowered in the way afterwards 
described. To prevent the crack extending, a deep transverse 
furrow is cut or burnt at its upper end. 

2. Tkansverse Cracks of the Wall 

may occur at any point ; they are generally seen at the inner 
quarter and toe, as a result of treads from sharp or faulty 
calkins. Pus from suppurating corns, etc., may break through 
at the coronet, and produce the same result by interrupting, 
for a time, the connection between the horn and coronary 
band. Such cracks are occasionally seen at the heel, the horn 
fibres having broken across, owing to dryness and contraction 
of the horn. They are not of much importance, and need only 
attract attention when they come within the region embraced 
by the nails. 

In order to avoid disfiguring the hoof, the horn below the 
cleft should be preserved as long as possible, the wall at this 
point being lowered and kept clear of the shoe. If, however, 
the piece becomes loose, it is better to remove it and fill up 
the resulting cavity with gutta-percha or some composition. 

3. Loose Wall, Seedy Toe, etc. 

{a) When at any point in the white line the connection 
between the wall and sole is destroyed, the resulting condition 
is described as ' loose wall.' 



SANDCRACK, LOOSE WALL, AND SEEDY TOE. 



0(6 



It is commoner in fore than in hind feet, and at the inner 
than at the outer side. Taken as a whole it is not of in- 
frequent occurrence, though it only attracts notice when it 
extends to the soft parts and makes the horse lame. On 
account of this fact an artificial division between superficial 
and deep-seated loose wall has been made. The latter causes 
lameness by reason of the separation extending towards the 
lower margin of the sensitive wall and there producing super- 
ficial inflammation or even pus formation. 

Loose wall can only be detected with certainty by removing 
the shoe and searching the foot, although its presence may 
sometimes be guessed by the bulging of the lower margin of 
the wall (fig. 353, a). 

The prognosis depends on whether the separation is super- 
ficial or deep, and whether it involves a large portion of the 
wall. Separations occasioning lameness are, like sandcracks, 
apt to be very troublesome. 




..a 



Fig. 353. — Vertical section of a hoof (semi-diagrammatic). «, loose wall ; l>, seedy wall 
(the process has extended further). 



The causes of loose wall are various. When the wall 
forms an oblique angle with the ground, it is more liable to 
separate than when upright. Wide, flat hoofs, therefore, are 
its commonest seat, but laterally distorted and contracted hoofs 
also exhibit the condition. The soft horn composing the white 
line is doubtless largely responsible for the occurrence of 
separations, offering, as it does, Kttle resistance to the 
ammoniacal fluids, etc., to which it is so often exposed, and 
suffering more severely than contiguous parts from the heat of 
the shoe when applied for fitting. Contact with manure alters 
its nature, the heat of the shoe dries it, and causes cracks and 
irregular strains in different portions, while the downward 
progress of the wall, which rather favours tension and cracking 
of the sole even when sound, contributes to the production of 



374 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. 

loose wall. Front feet suffer more frequently, because they 
are kept drier and carry greater weight. Eapid work on 
hard ground and faulty fitting of the shoe are also frequent 
causes. ]^arrowness of the bearing surfaces and an inclination 
outwards at the heels particularly favour separation. 

Loose wall can only be cured by the downward growth of 
healthy horn. In this case the old advice to remove the 
cause is especially applicable. Careful preparation of the 
hoof is of great importance. The connection between the wall 
and sole should never be weakened, though all ' seedy ' and 
broken-down horn must be removed, and the bearing surfaces 
should be made as broad as possible by allowing the shoe to 
slightly overlap the margin of the sole. This reheves the 
loose part of the wall of weight without doing any harm. 
Convex walls should be judiciously rasped so as to bring them 
towards their normal direction. If the hoof is weak, the 
bearing surface of the shoe may be very slightly inclined 
inwards. If, however, in addition to loose wall other disease 
of the hoof exists, a bar shoe with leather sole should be 
applied ; sometimes quarter-clips are useful 

When lameness is present, the separated section of the wall 
should be relieved of weight, but this is not always possible 
when the separation is of large extent. 

To prevent drying and the entrance of dirt the space may 
be filled with tar, or, better still, with Venice turpentine and 
tow, failing which, wax can be used. Horn substitutes like 
gutta-percha become hard, and are apt to act as a wedge, 
increasing the size of the space ; they should, therefore, be 
avoided. 

If pain is excessive and suppuration feared, the suspected 
area can be opened at its lowest point with a small centre-bit, 
and any blood-stained or purulent fluid removed, when the 
pain will diminish. After-treatment is similar to that given 
on page 320. 

In unshod horses loose wall is treated by removing all the 
separated horn and, if necessary, by applying a shoe. 

(b) Seedy toe is a condition in which the laminal and 
tubular sheaths of the horn wall are divided in the direction 
of their respective surfaces. Compared with that previously 
described, this condition is rare. 



TREATMENT OF LOOSE WALL AND SEEDY TOE. 375 

The presence of seedy toe may be suspected when a portion 
of the wall appears either prominent or hollow, and gives forth 
a hollow sound on being struck. To confirm the diagnosis the 
shoe must be removed. The white line is then seen to be 
replaced by a narrow slit, which, however, in no way indicates 
the extent of the disease. The division between the two por- 
tions of the wall extends further upwards than in loose wall, 
in many cases as far as the coronet. The space is usually 
filled with degenerated horn. The width of the diseased part 
may at times be very considerable. Moller states that it 
varies from i inch to 4 inches. 

Seedy toe is generally painless, but lameness is caused when 
weight is thrown on the diseased portion of wall and when the 
minimal is worked at a fast pace. 

The cause is stated by Moller to be an interruption in the 
formation of horn. In fact, there is considerable diversity of 
opinion on this point, but tentatively seedy toe may be con- 
sidered as possibly due to the action of some fungus-like 
organism which obtains entrance to the inner sheath of the 
wall and induces change in the horn. A cure requires con- 
siderable time. 

In sJioeing, the diseased portion of wall should always be 
relieved of weight. The cavity should be cleared out and, 
after dressing with pure carbolic acid, filled with tow and tar, 
turpentine, or wax. When the disease is more extensive a 
bar shoe should be applied and the nails omitted at the 
diseased spot. 

The radical method of dealing with seedy toe is to remove 
all separated and disintegrated horn, thoroughly disinfect the 
parts with pure carbolic acid, apply a bar shoe and blister the 
coronet. This, of course, necessitates a long rest. 

4. TlIKUSH 

is characterised by the presence in the cleft of the frog of an 
ill-smelling, blackish fluid, and by the frog itself being ragged 
or atrophied. The disease usually begins in the central furrow 
of the frog and extends thence to the other portions, which it 
destroys partly or even entirely. The products of decomposi- 
tion irritate the sensitive parts and cause tenderness if not 



376 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HOEN. 

actual lameness. The central portion of the frog first dis- 
appears ; and as a result of the unopposed pressure of the wall 
the limbs next approach and fill up the previously existing 
cleft, a condition which renders it difficult to keep the space 
clean. At the same time, the discharge gradually attacks the 
horny bulbs and may lead to a similar process in the periople. 
This is followed by the formation of rings in the superficial 
horny sheatli of the wall. The rings can be distinguished 
from those of the deeper sheath both by their appearance 
and course. They usually consist of slight elevations, which 
approach in front and towards the upper part of the foot^ 
where they may end or again may take an irregular course 
backwards, extending as far as the opposite half of the 
wall. They always cross the rings of the deeper sheath ; 
indeed, when thrush has existed for a long time, they some- 
times cross one another. This peculiar ring formation, which 
is almost pathognomonic of thrush, shows that the disease has 
existed for at least several months. 

Thrush results chiefly from want of cleanliness, insufficient 
exercise, and faulty shoeing. If for a long time the frog is 
prevented touching the ground by excessive trimming, or by the 
use of unsuitable shoes, it either atrophies or thrush develops. 
Prolonged rest, however, without any fault in shoeing, may 
produce the disease. It has been suggested that thrush is due 
to inflammation of the sudoriparous glands of the frog. 

Prognosis. — -The views held as to the significance of thrush 
are unusually varied. Some regard it as a very trifling 
disease, which may continue for years without any particular 
ill consequence, or even as a benign condition not to be inter- 
fered with. 

If thrush in itself is not of much importance, it often leads, 
however, to much more serious conditions. It weakens the 
framework of the hoof, and in flat feet favours the advent of 
contraction. It may interfere with the animal's use, and even 
when not actually producing lameness, it causes the stride to 
be shortened and diminishes freedom of movement. When 
affecting one side of the frog, it is apt to lead to unilateral 
contraction and obliquity of the hoof. In addition, it has 
been held responsible for the production of corns, sandcracks, 
and even canker. 



THRUSH. 377 

The treatment of thrush is neither complicated nor difficult, 
provided neglect has not resulted in serious changes in the 
hoof. When the attack is recent and there is no marked 
change in form, cure will be obtained by allowing the diseased 
frog to come in contact with the ground and exercising the 
animal freely. In more serious cases removal of all loose 
fragments of horn, thorough washing of the diseased frog 
several times daily, and the application of some antiseptic or 
mild astringent, such as raw pyroligneous acid or a 5 per cent, 
solution of sulphate of copper, will usually prove sufficient. 

To prevent irritation by manure, etc., the frog should be 
cleansed and smeared with Venice turpentine, after which a 
moderately warm iron may be slowly passed over the parts 
without actually burning them ; if, however, the disease is of 
old standing, the frog almost denuded of horn, and the hoof so 
contracted that the walls of the heel press on the plantar 
cushion and frog, De Fay's shoe (page 350) may be employed 
with great advantage. Contraction at the heels favours the 
disease, and conversely its removal assists recovery. As soon 
as possible the frog should be allowed to come in contact with 
the ground. Needless to say, the dilating shoe is useless 
except when the hoof is contracted. By using the knife in 
conjunction with astringent powders, thrush can be cured, i.e., 
the offensive discharge can be stopped ; but, as compared with 
the sound, well-developed organ which results from proper 
shoeing, the small, dry, shrivelled frog thus produced is most 
unsatisfactory. Thrush can only be regarded as cured when 
the discharge has ceased and the frog is once more dry and 
well developed. This is not to be obtained by the application 
of chemicals ; regular exercise and the intermittent pressure 
it causes can alone produce sound horn. Canker can only be 
efficiently treated by the veterinary surgeon, and the work of 
the farrier in such cases is confined to fashioning the neces- 
sary shoe. 



CHAPTER IV. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE STEUCTURES ENCLOSED 

BY THE HOOF. 

1. Pricks in Shoeing 

KESULT from misdirection of the nail in driving, in consequence 
either of the driver's carelessness, or (and much more fre- 
quently) of badly-punched nail-holes. They may be divided 
into two kinds, direct and indirect. 

The effects of the first are immediately perceptible, those of 
the second may be delayed. 

In cases of direct injury the nail penetrates the sensitive 
sole or wall, and the lesion may vary from simple perforation 
to fracture of the edge of the os pedis. There is always bleed- 
ing, though the blood may not be seen. 

In the second case the nail does not penetrate vascular 
tissues, but passes close to them, thrusting the soft horn 
inwards, pressing on sensitive structures, and in the course of a 
few days producing inflammation and lameness. There is no 
bleeding. This condition is often termed ' binding.' 

Symptoms. — The first symptom of direct injury is pain, 
shown by the limb being pulled away, and intimating to the 
farrier that the nail has taken a wrong course. When removed, 
more or less blood follows the nail or discolours its point, but 
bleeding may occur inwardly without being visible. It is 
otherwise when the foot at some part is bound or indirectly 
injured. Pain is not then immediately evinced, or at least not 
until the animal places weight on the foot. If attempts are 
made to raise the opposite foot the horse leans in that direction 
and appears uneasy. The effects of indirect pricks usually 
become apparent in from two to three days, but may be post- 
poned for eight to fourteen days, when inflammation and lame- 



DETECTION OF PRICKS FROM SHOEIXG. 379 

ness draw attention to the foot. The hoof is then hot, painful 
to percussion and to pressure with the pincers ; there is slight 
swelling, increased pulsation of the digital arteries, and partial 
or complete inability to bear weight on the foot. 

Pricks in shoeing may be suspected when the animal is 
tender on the foot, when it has been newly shod, wlien the 
hoof appears too small for the size of the body, when the wall 
is excessively rasped or portions are broken away, and when 
the nails are very high or very unequally placed. 

Premising that even with every precaution pricks in shoeing 
are sometimes unavoidable, the more common causes may be 
arranged as follows : — (1) badly placed or misdirected nail 
holes ; (2) excessive paring and lowering of the hoof ; (3) thin- 
ning the wall by rasping the outside ; (4) faults in fitting the 
shoe; using very narrow shoes; sinking the toe-clip too far 
into the hoof (the nail holes, instead of corresponding with the 
white line, then fall within the region of the sole) ; (5) faulty 
driving ; the use of badly pointed or excessively large nails ; 
<6) placing the nail too deep, or reversal of its point. As 
accidental causes may be mentioned, (7) old stubs left in the 
hoofs; (8) very thin or broken walls; (9) abnormal softness 
of the horn, which renders it difficult to ascertain the course 
of the nail by the resistance and sound ; (10) restlessness of 
the animal while the nails are being driven ; and (11) (nowadays 
a very uncommon event) splitting of the nail in the hoof. 

To detect pain in the foot the pincers are applied with 
moderate and regular pressure all round the sole and the 
clenches, and the lower part of the wall is gently tapped with 
the hammer. If the horse flinches at a certain spot, the shoe 
must be removed, each nail being drawn separately. IN'ote 
should be taken of the direction and thickness of the nails and 
of any adherent blood, blood- serum, or pus. The point where 
each nail enters the hoof should be examined. If, instead 
of passing through the white line, one of the nail holes appears 
within it, i.e., nearer the centre of the foot, it is in the highest 
degree probable that that particular nail hole is at fault. 
Each hole is then examined by passing a clean nail into it and 
pressing the point towards the soft tissues at different depths. 
Under such conditions symptoms of pain are a sure indication 
of the animal having been pricked. It need scarcely be said 



380 INFLAMMATION OF STEUCTUEES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

that the position and direction of the nail holes in the shoe- 
must be carefully examined. 

Treatment. — If the horse flinch while a particular nail is- 
being driven, the nail should at once be removed, the hole- 
disinfected with a few drops of carbolic oil (5 per cent.) and 
closed with wax. There is seldom any bad result. But when 
bleeding follows, the shoe should once more be carefully tried,, 
and only affixed when it is seen to fit perfectly and the nail 
holes to exactly correspond with the white line ; the nails 
should be left out in the neighbourhood of the injury and the 
latter disinfected and closed with wax or tar. After severe 
stabs or pricks a more or less well-marked inflammation of the 
corium is to be expected, though it may be prevented by 
cutting out and disinfecting the injured part, resting the- 
animal, and using cold poultices. When, however, the wound 
is clean and fresh no good object is served by cutting it out. 

' Binding ' (or nail pressure) often remains undetected until 
pain becomes severe. In such cases the offending nail when 
withdrawn is usually covered with, or followed by, pus, or a. 
dark coloured, sometimes stinking fluid. To allow the freest 
possible exit for this discharge it is advisable to remove all 
horn which has become ' underrun,' i.e., which is separated from 
the sensitive tissues. The particular nail hole may be cut out 
sufficiently to accommodate the little finger, the surrounding 
parts of the sole well thinned, and discharge assisted by 
warm baths or poultices. Excessive paring is to be avoided. 
If pain continues after removing the nail and allowing the pus^ 
to escape, warm baths of 3 to 5 per cent, carbolic solution are 
very useful. The moisture and warmth soften the horn and 
diminish pain. 

If after tw^o or three warm baths the pain is diminished or 
not very severe, a few drops of carbolic oil or tincture of myrrh 
may be applied to the injured part and the opening closed 
with a little carbolic jute or wood wool. In most cases com- 
plete recovery will soon occur. If shod so as to prevent 
pressure on the injured spot, horses which have been pricked 
can often be returned to work in a few days. The shoe must 
take its bearing only on the wall, and pressure on the white 
line and margin of the sole must be avoided. No nails should 
be driven in the neighbourhood of the injury. Although, when 



PRICKS IN SHOEING AND PICKED-UP NAILS. 



381 



'early detected and appropriately treated, pricks in shoeino are 
not dangerous, yet in some cases they lead to extensive 
suppuration and loss of the hoof, or become infected, determine 
the onset of tetanus, and thus prove often fatal. 

2. PicKED-up Nails. 

It not infrequently happens that nails and sharp bodies 
accidentally penetrate the hoof, either through the horny sole or 
frog, and, driven onwards by the weight of the animal's body. 




Fig. 354.— Hind-foot shod with surgical shoe for retaining- dressings. 

Teach the sensitive sole, sensitive frog, plantar cushion, per- 
forans tendon, navicular sheath, pedal bone or even the coffin 
joint. 

The hind feet are perhaps more frequently affected than the 
fore. The commonest points of perforation are the lateral 
furrows of the frog, and, when weakened by excessive trim- 
miner the sole and froo'. 

The symj)toms are usually sudden pain and lameness. The 
shoe should be removed and a thin slice taken off the sole and 
frog when the point of entrance of the foreign body (or the 
body itself), whether a nail, piece of glass, or other pointed 



382 INFLAIMMATION OF STKUCTUEES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

object, will be discovered, and should be cautiously removed,, 
particular care being taken not to leave any fragment behind. 
As the prognosis largely depends on how deep the foreign 
body has penetrated, the latter should be preserved, so that 
tlie veterinary surgeon may examine it. 

In slight injuries of the sensitive sole or frog, where pain is 
only moderate, the wound should not be enlarged, and it is only 
necessary to carefully thin the adjacent horny parts. In 
deeper penetrating injuries and when pain is severe, a veterinary 
surgeon should be called in. 

Poultices or dressings are then necessary, and the special 
shoe (fig. 354) may be found useful. The shoe is well seated 





Fig. 355.— Shoe for surgical dressing of the 
foot, a, screw holes ; and b, depression 
on upper surface for fastening the cover 
shown in next fig. 



Fig. 356. — Cover for shoe shown in 
previous fig. The letters indicate simi- 
lar points. 



out and the dressing itself held in position by flexible pieces of 
wood thrust between the shoe and the horny sole. By using: 
two crossed ' splints ' of thin wood or hoop iron, a dressing may 
be retained in an ordinary shoe, the special form then being 
unnecessary. 

In very special cases, when it is desired to exercise pressure 
on the injured spot and when the entire ground surface of the- 
hoof must be protected, the shoes shown in figs. 355 to SQ2 
may be used ; the sole is protected by an iron plate affixed by 
means of a point at the toe and a screw at either heel. 





To face -p, 383.] 



SUKGICAL SHOES. 38^. 



STAMPED CAET FOEE SHOE (SUEGICAL), WITH 
AKRANGEMENT FOE DRESSING FOOT (Fig. 357). 

Made from l|- X -J- inch iron. 

This shoe, specially made for treating cases of canker, etc., 
is seated out to the heels to allow of an iron plate {sec following 
figures) heing inserted between it and the foot. The modus 
operandi is to dress the foot, insert a proper stopping of tow, 
wood-wool, etc., and insert the plate, which serves the double 
purpose of retaining the dressing and excluding moisture. 

As it is usually needful to dress the foot daily, this shoe 
obviates the necessity for removal and is of important service. 



STAMPED CAET HIND SHOE (SUEGICAL), WITH 
AEEANGEMENT FOE DEESSING FOOT (Fig. 358). 

Made from 1^ x ^ inch iron. 

This shoe corresponds in purpose with the preceding. It 
must be well seated out to the extreme limits of heels to allow 
the plate to be introduced. In most cases it is advantageous- 
to have, as here depicted, a toe and two quarter clips. They 
give greater support to the shoe and prevent it shifting. 



384c INFLAMMATION OF STKUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 



PLATES FOE SUEGICAL SHOES (Fig. 359). 
Made from 16 gauge sheet iron. 

This plate closes the under surface of the foot, retaining the 
dressing, preventing the entrance of moisture or dirt, and pro- 
tecting the parts from injury. The sheet iron used must be 
iairly stout, otherwise the plate bends and rapidly wears out. 

Before the shoe is nailed on the foot it is used as a guide 
for marking out the plate, which is made to slip in and out 
with a certain amount of friction. When the shoe is nailed 
•on, the plate is inserted and the length of heel marked. Lastly, 
the heel portion is turned over in the vice and the holes for 
straps are punched. 



STAMPED CAET HIND SHOE (SUEGICAL), WITH 
AEEANGEMENT FOE DEESSING FOOT (Fig. 360). 

Made from 1^ X -g- inch iron. 

This shoe is used for a similar purpose to those preceding. 
The plate is attached by three screws, one at the toe and one 
at each heel. 

Being more complicated, the shoe is, in general, less useful 
^than that with sliding plate. 










Oi 
CO 




&0 



o ^ 






t: 'T3 



[To face p. 384. 




Fig. 361. — Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical), with arrangement for dressing 
foot. Made from 1 i x | inch iron. 



To face -p. 385.] 




To face p. 385.] 



Fig. 362. 



SURGICAL SHOES. 335 



STAMPED CAET HIND SHOE (SUEGICAL), WITH 
AREANGEMENT FOE DEESSING EOOT (Figs. 
361, 362). 

Made from 1\ x ^ inch iron. 

This shoe has a plate attached at the heels by a hinge, and 
at the toe by a screw. As shown in the following illustration 
the plate folds back, giving free access to the sole for the pur- 
pose of inserting dressings. The shoe is compKcated and can 
only be made by a good workman, but in cases where a great 
deal of pressure on the sole is required it is of real value. 
Otherwise it can advantageously be replaced by the shoe with 
sliding plate. 



2b 



386 inflammation of steuctuees enclosed by the hoof. 

3. Teeads on the Coeonet 

are often produced, in horses with itchy legs, by the animal 
rubbing the coronet with the heel of the opposite shoe. At 
intervals the horse stamps violently, and it is then that the 
injury is done. The front and inner side of the coronet of 
hind-feet are most frequently injured. A ' tread ' is a bruise 
or contused wound, associated with inflammation of the coronary 
band, which often results in destruction of a portion of the 
horn-secreting structures and permanent injury to the hoof. 
Such accidents are commonest in winter when animals are 
shod with sharp heels. 

The inflammation results either in resolution or in necrosis 
with suppuration. The periople when separated does not again 
become adherent, and in consequence of this and of the 
interrupted formation of horn a cavity results in the horn wall 
(see page 372). When lameness follows treads, the portion of 
the wall below the injury must be relieved of weight. In fresh 
cases the injured parts should be carefully cleansed with warm 
water, all dirt, hairs, and loose portions of tissue removed, and 
some antiseptic (5 per cent, carbolic lotion) or mild astringent, 
like 5 per cent, alum or acetate of lead solution, applied. 
Severe treads always require the attention of a veterinary 



surgeon. 



4. Inflammation of the Peeioplic Eing. 

The perioplic ring becomes inflamed comparatively seldom. 
The inflammation may affect the entire ring or, as when it 
results from dirt and irritants, only the portions above the 
toe wall. 

The symptoms are increased warmth, swelling, tenderness 
on pressure, in white feet well-marked redness of the skin, 
and (later) a change in the condition of the perioplic ring and 
superficial sheath of the hoof. This superficial sheath exhibits 
elevations and depressions, running parallel with the coronet, 
and thus forming more or less complete rings, or the perioplic 
ring becomes irregularly thickened. The perioplic horn after- 
wards cracks longitudinally and transversely, giving the affected 
part of the hoof an appearance resembling the bark of an elm 



INJURIES TO INFLAMMATION OF CORONET. 387 

tree (fig. 363). Above the perioplic ring the epidermis usually 
shows an abundant growth of bran-like scales and crusts (as in 
dry eczema). In many cases the perioplic ring appears denuded 
of horn and so swollen as to project considerably above the 
upper margin of the wall. The disease takes a chronic course. 
The causes are only partially understood. The perioplic 
ring, especially in pigmented hoofs, appears covered with dry, 
rough, brittle scales. Where fragments have broken away the 




Fig. 363. — Showing appearance of hoof after long-coutinued inflammation of 
the perioplic ring. 

reddened and inflamed perioplic ring becomes visible. Treads 
on the coronet or the use of irritants (frequent poulticing, 
grease, etc., etc.) may give rise to this condition. Gutenticker 
describes cases caused by the use of unrefined vaseline. 

Treatment consists principally in removing the cause. The 
parts are thoroughly cleansed with water and (carbolic) soap 
and any proliferations or thickenings removed. Gentle infric- 
tion with boric acid ointment or 3 per cent, carbolic ointment 
has been followed by good results. Some recommend sulphur 
ointment, consisting of sulphur 2 parts, lard or lanoline 5 parts, 
or a lotion of 2 parts tartaric acid in 100 parts glycerine, with 
the addition of 3 to 5 parts creolin. When deep cracks form 
and discharge, a pressure bandage combined with astringents 
is often useful. 

5. Corns. 

In the widest acceptance of the word a corn may be defined 
as a bruise sustained by the keratogenous membrane. Corns 
are recognised by the yellowish-red or purple colour of the 



388 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

horn of the white line and sole. Their commonest seat is 
between wall and bar. 

A light bruise causes exudation at the surface of the corium, 
forming the sensitive laminae and papillae. After more severe 
bruises blood-vessels are ruptured, blood poured out between 
the corium and growing horn, is absorbed by the latter and 
gives rise to the above described discoloration. The coloured 
portions are carried downward by the continued growth of 
horn, until finally they reach the ground surface. It is, there- 
fore, clear that a corn is never visible at the time of its pro- 







Fig. 364.— Cross section of the horny and sensitive walls from a case of contracted heel. 
Magnified 26 diameters, a, horny wall ; 6, horny laminae ; 6', their foldings ; c, showing 
change in direction of secondary lamina ; d, sensitive wall. 

duction, and cannot be detected until the hoof has been ' cut 
out.' Corns may be situate in the sensitive wall of the heel, 
the sensitive sole covering the corner of the heel and the 
sensitive bar, for which reason, wall, sole, and bar corns have 
been differentiated. They are rare in unshod horses. The 
front feet, and especially the inner heels, are their commonest 



MICROSCOPICAL CHANGES AFTEll ' CORN.' 



389 



seats. According to their severity and sequelae corns may be 
divided into several varieties. 

(1) Slight bruises lead to distortion of the horny lamina 
and secondary laminae (fig. 364, h' and c) and to superficial in- 
flammation of the corium with exudation of sero-sanguineous 
fluid, which causes a yellowish, waxy or yellowish-red colora- 
tion. Extravasation of blood produces a red or bluish-red 
colour. The fluid exuded is again absorbed, leaving the spot 
dry, hence the name ' dry corn.' Lameness is seldom associ- 
ated with this form. 

(2) Severe bruising and the entrance of pyogenic organisms, 
lead to inflammation and suppuration, the condition termed 
' suppurating corn.' Failing artificial paths of escape through 
the horn, the abscess enlarges in the direction of least resist- 
ance, i.e., upward between the sensitive and horny laminae 







lil?*^^^ 



■■-1.- 






I'lG. 365. — Transverse section of horny and sensitive wall from case of corn of the wall. 
X 24. a, horn wall; b, horny lamina); c and d, degenerated horn; e, sensitive wall; 
/, space produced by formation of pus ; g, shrivelled sensitive lamina; ; h, distorted 
horny lamina;. 



(fig. 365, /), and finally breaks through at tlie coronet. In 
corns of the sole the sensitive and horny soles are separated 
to a greater or less extent, and in corns of the bar suppura- 
tion may even extend to the plantar cushion. Suppurating 
corns often produce great pain and lameness. 

(3) When mechanical irritation is continually renewed, the 
corn becomes permanent. Organic changes occur in the 
corium and hoof and sometimes in the pedal bone itself. The 



390 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTUKES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 



horn is greatly discoloured, permeated with cracks, blood- 
stained, and of soft consistence. 

Long continued irritation of the sensitive wall produces 
change in the horn of the quarters and heels. The sensitive 
wall often loses its laminated character at the centre of 
suppuration and exhibits a deep groove devoid of laminse, 
though without sacrificing its power of producing horn. 
Though no horny laminse are produced, the space becomes 





Fig. 366.— Portion of the inner surface of 
the wall showing changes after old 
standing corn, a, horn tumour. 






Fig. 367. —Ground surface of pedal bone 
showing bony enlargements on the wings 
(retrossal processes) in consequence of old 
standing corn. 



filled with horn, which forms firm masses or tumours of vary- 
ing size (fig. 365, e, and 366, a). The wings of the os pedis 
become enlarged, in consequence of chronic inflammation, 
ostitis or periostitis (fig. 367), as sometimes discovered after 
death. 

The symptoms of corn are those of inflammation of the 
corium. In horses visibly lame there is always pain and in- 
creased warmth. The reddened spot in the heel is found on 
cutting out the foot. Corns may be due to very varied causes, 
and are by no means consequent on bad shoeing alone. Such 
causes are often to be found in the formation of the hoof 
itself or even in the conformation of the limb. Hence certain 
animals suffer more frequently than others, in spite of the 
best attention in shoeing, while, in consequence of the greater 
load thrown on them, the fore are much more liable to corns 
than the hind feet. 

Unequal distribution of weight in feet which are turned in 
or out largely influences the position of the corn, which is 



SYMPTOMS AND CAUSES OF COKN. 391 

most frequently found in the inner heel when the toe is 
turned outwards and vice versa. Weak, low, badly formed or 
contracted heels are all potent causes. Corns are also very 
common as a disease secondary to side bone. ' Dropped ' soles 
often exhibit corns, the heels of the shoe being liable to press 
on, or even become embedded in, the sole at the point of the 
heel. 

The external causes are many. First come faulty prepara- 
tion of the hoof, bad shoeing, and reckless paring of broad 
flat hoofs ; then follow weakening of the heels, sole, bars, and 
frog in all other forms of hoof, at the same time that tlie 
toe is left too long ; unequal paring of one side of the hoof 
destroying the level character of the tread ; excessive trimming 
of the sole and bars in order to give the appearance of a strong 
hoof, and cutting away the bars. Amongst faulty shoes may 
be mentioned those which are either too short, too far set 
under the hoof or nailed on across it, and shoes which incom- 
pletely cover the bearing surface or in which the bearing 
surface itself inclines inwards at the heels. These confine the 
expansion of the hoof. In flat and dropped soles insufficient 
seating out of the shoe is also a cause. Irregular and insecure 
fitting and shifting of the shoe from carelessness in nailing on 
may also cause strain of laminae in the heel. Bad shoeing 
usually produces corns of the sole. In certain circumstances 
stones, becoming fixed between the frog and the heel of the 
shoe, bruise the sole. 

Inasmuch as dryness is injurious to the hoof it may also 
produce corns. It renders the horny box hard and unyielding 
and produces a ' shuffling ' gait at the commencement of work. 
After long continuance of wet weather the sole may become 
softened and so rather more liable to bruising, yet this is only 
of importance when other causes are also acting. 

The very real character of the complaints as to hard roads, 
fast pace, etc., causing corns is shown by the fact that, in spite 
of good shoeinof, horses which work in towns suffer much more 
frequently than even badly shod farm horses. 

As shoes cause the entire body-weight to rest on the lower 
surface of the wall while the sole and frog are more or less 
suspended (especially when calkins are used), it is not difficult 
to believe that in the susjjemling parts, ie.j the sensitive lamiiiiB, 



392 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTUKES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

strain is common. In this respect, as in many others, shoeing 
is a necessary evil. 

The prognosis is influenced by the conformation of the limbs 
and condition of the lateral cartilages, etc. Turning out or in 
of the toe, weakness of the quarters, and (especially) ossification 
of the lateral cartilage are all unfavourable factors. 

The general treatment of corns, from whatever cause arising, 
is tolerably constant, save when side bones are present, in 
which case bar shoes are objected to by some. The consequences 
depend not on the colour of the horn, etc., but on the position 
of the injury, on the degree of pain associated with it, and 
on the cause. As in other diseased conditions, removal of 
the cause plays an important part in treatment. Trifling 
bruises producing little pain and accompanied by slight extra- 
vasation of blood soon become converted into dry corns. Over- 
grown toes should be shortened, excessively high heels lowered, 
and a shoe applied which interferes as little as possible with 
the function of any part of the hoof. Before nailing on the 
shoe the posterior part of the bearing surface of the heel is 
often lowered ^ inch, so as to prevent pressure and pain, but 
the use of a shoe ' set ' at the heel is preferable. 

When pain is so marked as to indicate extensive injury and 
severe extravasation of blood, the shoe should be removed, the 
horn thinned, the foot placed in warm boracic acid or per- 
manganate of potash lotion for an hour or two, and poultices 
then applied, to diminish the inflammation, and, if possible, 
prevent suppuration. If, in spite of this, pain increases, 
suppuration has generally set in. 

^Y careful examination the pus is found, and should be 
allowed free exit. The most direct way is the best, provided 
it necessitates no injury of healthy soft tissues or the removal 
of excessive quantities of horn. The first object must, how- 
ever, be to provide free drainage ; even when pus has reached 
the coronet, an opening should be provided below. 

A warm foot-bath often facilitates the discharge, especially 
when the pus is thick or inspissated. Once pain is removed, 
the horse can be shod. The shoe must protect the diseased 
parts from external bruises and internal strain; a well- 
constructed bar shoe is usually best. This transfers, without 
damage, the weight of the body from the diseased to the sound 



TKEATMENT OF COKX. 



393 



parts. The depression in the horn is closed with a pledget of 
tow saturated with carbolic oil or tincture of myrrh, and 
retained in position, if necessary, by a leather sole. 

In old corns it is not sufficient to temporarily protect the 
diseased spot, but the same precautions must be observed 
continually or for a long time. A three-quarter bar shoe is 
very useful, a portion being cut out at the diseased spot, so that 
it experiences no pressure whatever. The illustration (fig. 368) 




Fig. 368. — Three-quarter bar shoe, a, seat 
of the corn. 



Fig. 369.— Ordinary three-quarter shoe. 



sufficiently shows the construction of this shoe. In light 
horses with good frogs the ordinary three-quarter shoe, that is, 
a flat shoe minus the inner quarter, suits very well (fig. 369). 

In corns associated with side bone, flat shoes with a thick 
leather sole are applied, and the hoof is kept moist. 

If, in cases of old-standing corn, one or other of the bulbs 
becomes backwardly displaced, it is probable that the os pedis 
is diseased, as shown in fig. 368. The shoe, whether a bar or 
ordinary shoe, should then be provided with longer heels in 
order to remove weight from the diseased side (compare 
page 322). 

Other complications, like sinus, etc., consequent on the 
further development or neglect of corns, require the attention 
of a veterinary surgeon. 



394 INFLAMMATION OF STEUCTUEES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

Before affixing a shoe to a hoof showing corns, especially 
when the horse is ' going tender/ the reddened portion of the 
sole should be thinned. The surrounding parts should then be 
moderately thinned, so that they may exercise no pressure on 
the diseased area. The sensitive parts must not, of course, be 
exposed. 

Eeddish spots caused by bruising sometimes appear at other 
parts of the sole (bruised sole). The cause is either pressure 
on the sensitive parts by the horny sole, which has become 
too thick and hard, or, as is usual, bruising by loose stones. 
Such bruises may also end in suppuration. The treatment is 
similar to that of corns. 

The shoes illustrated and described on next page will be found 
exceedingly useful in many cases of corn. 



I 




Fig. 370. — Thi-ee-quarter fullered seated fore shoe. Made from 
1 X i inch iron. 




Fig. 371.— Fullered fore shoe (' set ' on ground surface of inside heel). 
]\rade from | x i inch iron. 



To face p. 395.] 



SHOES FOR CASES OF CORN. 395 



THEEE-QUAllTER FULLEKED SEATED FOEE SHOE 

(Fig. 370). 

Made from 1 X -J- inch iron. 

This shoe is useful in cases of corn in the inside heel, wiry 
inside heel, or weak and low heel. In the latter case very 
great benefit is often derived, and the heel speedily becomes 
stronger. Cases of ' capped elbow ' may also be shod with this 
shoe. 

A leather sole or frog pad may be used in conjunction. 
The inside heel is either cut off square, as shown, or round. 

■ The inside quarter of shoe must be fitted fairly full, other- 
wise the corresponding part of foot is liable to spht off, 
especially if the wall be thin. 



FULLERED FOEE SHOE ' SET ' OK GROUND SURFACE 
OFmSIDEHEEL (Fig. 371). 

Made from -J X ^ inch iron. 

The method of ' settino; ' the inside heel of shoe in cases of 
corn is infinitely preferable to that of so-called ' easing ' the 
heel by cutting away the wall. It gives protection to the 
injured parts without exposing them to the risk of pressure. 
Sometimes the ' set ' is placed on the foot surface, but this is 
less advantageous that the system illustrated. It is produced 
by a few blows of the turning or boss hammer, the shoe being 
held on the edge of the anvil. 

The ' set ' part should be fitted long and full. It is essen- 
tial that it be reduced to half the thickness of the shoe, other- 
wise as the shoe wears level with the ' set ' portion pressure 
will again be produced on the tender spot. If the horse wears 
hard on the inside heel, it may be needful to reduce the thick- 
mess still more. 



396 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 



6. Shoeing after Laminitis. 

Laminitis is a peculiar inflammation of the horn-secreting 
structures, usually seen to follow chill, digestive disorder, or 
overwork when the animal is in unfit condition. It suddenly 
affects horses and frequently leads to changes in the form of 
the hoof, as shown in figs. 372 to 374. Certain facts seem to 
encourage the view that it results from specific infection. 

The disease is always accompanied with pain. The front 
feet are the most common seat, though occasionally all four feet 
or only one foot may be affected. In the first case the two 
front-feet are placed in advance of the body and the hind-feet 
thrust far under it. When all four feet are inflamed, the 
animal can scarcely walk. The disease often attacks very 
suddenly, and is then usually accompanied by well-marked 
fever. 

The sensitive lamin£e of the toe show the most marked 




Fig. 372. — Longitudinal section of hoof one 
year after severe attack of laminitis. 



Fig. 373.— Longitudinal section of hoof 
three months after attack, a, patho- 
logically modified horn of the white line ; 
b, distortion of the horn tubules in con- 
se(iuence of sinking of the os pedis. 




Fig. 374. — Hoof after laminitis. 



Fig. 375.— The same shod. The dotted lines 
indicate the previous form. 



changes, those of the quarters and heels being less affected. 
Varying with the degree of disease the connection between the 



ANATOMICAL CHANGES AFTER LAMINITIS. 



397 



sensitive and horny lamina3 is more or less obliterated, the os 
pedis sinks, and at the same time a depression occurs round the 
coronet (figs. 372 to 375). 

The form of the hoof, therefore, alters and the heels appear 
higher. Kings form on the wall, the course of which is quite 
characteristic. At the toe they lie close together, gradually di- 
verging from this point towards the heels (fig. 374). Below the 
coronet the toe wall generally sinks in, while its under parts 
appear thrust outwards. The white Une is abnormally broad, its 
liorn is ' cheesy,' loose, and easily broken down ; as a consequence, 
the relations between the horny wall and horny sole are altered 
and there is a tendency to the formation of hollow wall. If 
no relapse occurs, recovery sometimes results, the new horn 




FIG. 376.— Special broad shoe for laminitis, with two toe-clips and a frog-clip. 

^rowing down in the normal direction from the coronet, 
though^'as a rule the horn of the white line appears altered in 
■character. If, however, the first attack be severe or repeated, 
the horny sole becomes flattened or even convex around the toe 
inconsequence of descent of the os pedis. In aggravated cases 
the toe of the os pedis may penetrate the horny sole in front 
of the frog. The wall of the toe, previously little changed, is 
then completely distorted and bulged outwards. 

Early treatment by a veterinary surgeon may cut short the 
attack and entirely prevent the changes in form and condition 
■of the hoof, but when this is neglected the disease is apt to 



398 INFLAMMATION OF STEUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

become chronic, and pathological changes in the hoof can never 
be completely prevented. 

The animal may certainly recover sufficiently to be used^ 
but its gait is always characteristic. The feet are not lifted 
fairly from the ground, but thrust forward and set down heel 
first. The heels of the shoe, therefore, wear most. 

In preparing such hoofs for shoeing, a large amount of the 
prominent, bulging toe may be removed without injury. The 
sole should be spared and the heels lowered only slightly. 

The choice of a shoe depends principally on the condition 
of the sole. When this still remains somewhat concave an 
ordinary shoe can be used, but if it is flattened or absolutely 
convex a broad shoe, preferably a bar shoe (fig. 376), should be 
chosen, especially if the bearing margin of the wall be broken. 

As long as the toe continues sensitive toe-clips should be 
avoided and a pair of side-clips substituted, the portion of the 
wall lying between the clips being lowered -i inch to prevent 
pressure on the diseased toe (see fig. 375). 

In horses which have suffered from laminitis the shoe is 
sometimes displaced forwards on account of the animal's 
unequal tread. This may be avoided by providing each heel 
or the heel prolongation with a clip (fig. 376). 



7. Keratomata, or Horn Tumours, 

consist in thickening of the inner surface of the horn wall (fig, 
377). They are not common. Their most frequent seat is 
the toe, rarely the wall of the quarter. Gutenacker regards^ 
them as due to chronic inflammation of the sensitive wall with 
suppuration between the sensitive and horny laminse. Th^ 
pus is retained, causes partial degeneration of the sensitive 
laminse and separation of the sensitive from the horny laminse. 
After the pus has escaped through a passage established by 
pressure or through an artificial opening, the space left i-s- 
only partially filled up, and, in consequence of the inflam- 
mation, small prominences form on the free margins of the 
sensitive laminae, which are the chief agents in the production 
of keratomata. As the free margins of the sensitive laminae 
increase in thickness the track of horn they secrete becomes- 



I 



OBSTINATE CHARACTER OF KERATOMATA. 



399 



wider. The keratoma thus produced gradually occupies the 
formerly empty space, and in its turn may lead to partial 
atrophy (pressure atrophy) of the os pedis. 

Keratomata may be caused by chronic inflammation un- 
accompanied by suppuration. The cavity in the os pedis 
corresponds in form and extent with the keratoma. 

S2jmptoms. — Horn tumours do not invariably produce lame- 
ness, but, when lameness is present, pain, increased warmth and 
pulsation of the digital arteries may usually be detected. The 
growth can only be removed after it reaches the bearing 
surface. The white line is then distorted at some part of its 




Fig. 377.— a piece of the toe wall removed, together with keratoma, a, coronary margin ; 
b, plantar margin ; c, keratoma ; d, depression containing pus. 



course, describing a semicircle around the horn tumour, which 
appears at the ground surface as a waxy-looking body. The 
new growth occasionally undergoes degeneration, producing a 
depression of varying depth, with dark coloured walls, from 
which a greyish-black pus is sometimes discharged. 

Causes. — Chronic inflammation of the sensitive wall conse- 
quent on bruises, pricks in shoeing, clefts in the horn, corns, or 
treads. 

The prognosis is unfavourable whether lameness exists or 
not. Under any circumstances lameness is probable and liable 
to recur even after removal of the growth. 

Treatment.- — When suppuration has seriously affected the 



■400 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

sensitive wall, or when severe pain has existed uninterruptedly 
for a long time, operation is advisable and can only be suc- 
cessfully attempted by a veterinary surgeon. If, however, 
suppuration is only slight, and pain insignificant, the best 
treatment is to thin the neighbouring parts, expose the sup- 
purating spot, and then to dress and plug the cavity with a 
20 per cent, solution of iodoform in ether. This treatment 
should be repeated at every shoeing until improvement occurs. 
The latter, however, depends principally on thorough cutting 
out and cleansing of the suppurating spot. 

Shoeing. — When the wall is good an ordinary shoe is suffi- 
cient, but if broken away or diseased a bar shoe, well seated 
out at the affected part, is preferable. The spot itself should 
be relieved of all pressure. 



8. Canker of the Frog or Sole 

is a peculiar intractable disease of the corium, which always 
tends to become aggravated, and which is attended with pro- 
liferation of the sensitive papillse or laminae, disturbance in 
the ordinary formation of horn, and the secretion of a thick, 
offensively smelling fluid. It usually begins unnoticed in one 
of the lateral furrows of the frog, less frequently in the sole, 
and is only detected after having made considerable progress. 
A moist discharging spot, from which the horn has been 
shed, is then noticed. Its base is pale red, swollen, and spongy, J. 
and not infrequently the sensitive frog, sole or wall exhibits 
warty, cauliflower-like or brushy growths. There is seldom « 
lameness at this stage. The disease makes steady but slow W 
progress, and a long period may elapse before it extends from 
the frog to the wall. At a later period the hoof, if not already 
very oblique, increases in width towards the heels. 

The causes are not yet sufficiently known. Slight inflamma- 
tion due to bruising, especially when the corium is exposed, is 
said to be sufficient to cause an attack. Although canker is 
quite distinct from thrush, the latter disease seems to favour 
the production of canker. 

The prognosis is unfavourable and should always be guarded. 
The principal indications are afforded by the condition of the 



PROGNOSIS AND TREAT.\[EXT OF CANKER. 



401 



parts, the extent of the disease, tlie length of time it has 
existed, the rapidity of its return after treatment, and the 
number of feet affected. 

Treatment comprises the removal of all loose horn, and the 
careful paring away and exposure of the diseased spot. For 
this purpose a searcher, scalpel, and forceps are required. The 
parts should be spared as much as possible and care taken that 
the surface in which the sound and diseased parts meet exhibits 





Fig. 378. — Shoe prepared for cauker dressing. 
a, heels tapped and screwed ; b, depression 
for taking the tongue of the cover shown 
in next fig. 



FIG. 379.— Cover for above shoe. 



no hard margins. Bleeding should, if possible, be avoided. 
The paring, therefore, requires some skill. The parts are next 
thoroughly cleansed with clean lint or tow, without using water, 
and the dressing applied. All kinds of drugs have been tried, 
some with good, some with bad results. Distinct granulations 
should be removed by the use of mild caustics and tlie real 
curative material (generally an astringent and disinfectant) 
thereafter applied. Schleg recommends a mixture of sulphate 
of copper, sulphate of iron, and pulverised tormentilla root in 
the proportions of 1 : 2 : 3, or equal parts of salicyhc acid and 
pulverised tormentilla root. Professor Putz suggests nitrate of 
lead. When the materials are used in the form of powder they 
must be rubbed in. Finally all parts denuded of horn should be 
subjected to moderate regular pressure by a surgical dressing, 
or less preferably by means of a special shoe and cover (see 
fig. 380). Wood wool or jute tampons are applied to the spot, 

2c 



402 INFLAMMATION OF STEUCTUKES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

the sheet of iron slipped into position and fastened. When 
the diseased parts appear very dirty it is useful after cleansing 
to saturate the new growth with tincture of iodine. The 
dressing is repeated daily, all loose fragments of horn being 
carefully removed. At a later stage the dressing need only be 
applied every two or three days. The special shoe presents 
nothing peculiar in regard to form, surface, nail holes, etc. ; but 



Fig. 380.— Special shoe for canker, with cover applied. 

is made specially light and narrow, and presents at the centre 
of the toe a depression to receive the point on the front of the 
sheet-iron cover. The outer margin of the cover is rounded 
off and rests for a distance of about -|- inch on the inner and 
upper margin of the shoe, which is seated for this purpose. 
The cover should not touch the ground. This prevents the 
front of the cover being pressed inwards. According to the 
condition and position of the diseased spots the shoe may be 
varied. 



9. Ossification of the Lateral Cartilages. 
Side Bones. 

Lungwitz states that, in 1251 horses examined, side bones 
occurred as shown in annexed table : — 



FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF SIDE BONE. 



403 





•ji 


aj 








o ^ 


S o 






Description, 


a-= 


=§2 


S 


Remarks. 




"o 5 


=*M 


P 






98 


G8 


1 




Belgian cart horse, 


69-5 


Working only on 










hard pavements. 


Danish carriage horse, 


120 


25 


21 


Do. 


Heavy riding horse, 


388 


36 


9 


AVorkiiig in heavy 
ground and 
partly on hard 
pavements. 


Do., 


132 




... 


Working on light 
sandy soil. 


Light riding horse, 


133 


8 


6 


Working on light 
ground. 


Riding horses (various weights), . 


140 


3 


2 


Do. 


Military horses, .... 


200 


1 


0-5 


Working on 
medium heavy 
ground. 


Officers' horses (heavy). 


40 


3 


7-5 


Working on varied 
surfaces. 


1251 


144 


14-4 



1. Ossification of the lateral cartilage occurs principally 
in heavy, coarse-bred horses. 2. The fore feet suffer more 




Fig. 381.— Left fore-foot, seen from the outer side. The skin has been partially removed 
to show that portion (a) of the lateral cartilage which projects above the hoof ; 
b, ligament running from lateral caitilage to fetlock, one-third natural size. 

frequently than the hind ; 3, the cartilage of the left hoof 
suffers more frequently than that of the right ; and 4, the 



404 INFLAMMATION OF STEUCTUEES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

outer cartilage suffers more frequently than the inner. 5. 
Ossification sometimes occurs at an early age, usually when the 




---%??■• 



r 






*<' " .- .\ "^ 







I'IG. 382. — Pedal bone, with almost complete ossification of the lateral cartilages, a, pedal 
bone ; b, wing of pedal bone, from which point, as a rule, ossification commences ; 
c, articular surface ; d, rough, uneven surfaces. 

animal is first put to work. 6. Well-bred animals suffer less 
frequently than others. 7. The use of animals, of heavy build, 
on hard roads favours the occurrence of side bone. 

The symptoms vary according to whether one or both carti- 
lages are affected, and whether ossification is partial or com- 
plete. Expansion of the hoof is always diminished, and may 
be entirely suspended. 

The diagnosis of side bone is easy as soon as the upper 
margin of the cartilage has become ossified ; it then feels hard. 
On the other hand, when ossification has only attacked the 
lower portion of the cartilage lying within the hoof, it is either 
very difficult or absolutely impossible to detect the change, 
though the form of the hoof sometimes gives valuable indica- 
tions. 

Side bones produce a clumsy constrained action and at times 
marked lameness. The symptoms are aggravated by rapid 
work on hard roads, by allowing the hoofs to become dry, and 
by using high calkins. When, however, the hoof is kept moist, 
animals may work for a long time without inconvenience. 

The causes are (1) congenital predisposition, in heavy, coarse- 
bred horses, and (2) excessive concussion produced by work on 
hard roads, for which reason the disease is frequent in large 
towns. The fact that the outer half of the foot suffers the 



CAUSES AND PROGNOSIS OF SIDE BONE. 



405 



greater shock during movement, explains why the outer 
cartilage more frequently becomes ossified than the inner. 

The prognosis depends on the horse's work, weight, and 
breed, on the form of the hoof, and on the extent of ossifica- 
tion. Heavy horses with completely ossified lateral cartilages 
are of little use for rapid work on paved streets. When only 
one cartilao'e is affected, or when the animal is worked on soft 
ground, side bones are comparatively unimportant. While 





Fig. 383.— Right fore-foot altered in fonii in FiG. 384.— Shoe for above foot, with broad 
consequence of side bone. outer limb. 

ossification is in active progress the animal goes tender, if not 
actually lame, but as soon as it becomes complete the lameness 
tends to disappear, though it readily returns in consequence of 
bruising or strain if the tread is not level. Lameness is 
usually temporary, but the diseased cartilage can never be 
restored to its primitive condition. 

After ossification is complete, lameness may be produced by 
bruising of the plantar cushion and of the sensitive wall, which 
are then enclosed between two hard, unyielding structures ; 
the plantar cushion, being confined by the ossified cartilages, 
can expand neither towards the right nor left at the moment 
at which weight is placed on the foot and the sensitive wall 
being similarly placed between the horny wall and ossified 
cartilage. A partial improvement may occur when the plantar 
cushion diminishes in volume. If, in addition, the wall is 
contracted at the heels, the condition is even more serious. 



406 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTUHES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

In shoeing animals with side bone it is important to know 
whether the condition is uni- or bi-lateral. In side bone of the 
outer heel the wall of that side is comparatively immobile, and 
the corresponding quarter and heel of the shoe is excessively 
worn. On removing the shoe the outer wall is found much 
higher than the inner. The external heel of the shoe is thin, 
the internal comparatively little worn. The hoof is either 
unchanged in form or the wall of the outer heel is contracted, 
and sometimes covered with rings (fig. 383). The outer por- 
tion of the coronet is more prominent, and the outer limb of 
the frog smaller than the inner. Bruises or strains in the 
wall not infrequently exist. 

The shoe should be flat, the outer limb broader than 
usual, the seating out should terminate behind the last nail 
hole, so that the entire breadth of the heel surface may form 
a horizontal plane (fig. 384). The outer wall should be lowered 
more than the inner, and the shoe so formed that its inner 
limb fits as close as possible, the outer being left sufficiently 
wide to meet a perpendicular line dropped from the coronet. 
The supporting surface is thus widened towards the outside, 
and, in consequence of the level tread, more even wearing of 
the shoe produced. 

When both lateral cartilasjes are ossified, a thick leather 
sole materially assists in diminishing shock. Special deeply- 
fullered shoes with rope inlay are also of value, but pads and 
bar shoes seem (in theory at least) contra-indicated, and, at 
first, cause pain by pressing on the frog and so tending to 
thrust asunder parts that are now unyielding. 

Side bones are often accompanied by corns, which are 
usually extremely persistent. As, however, these are not 
primary but secondary conditions, they deserve less attention 
when choosing and fitting the shoe than the ossification. 
Under these circumstances ' springing ' the heels, which is 
frequently practised in order to relieve corns, produces local 
strain and pain, and should be avoided. 

Treatment consists in applications which soften and cool 
the hoof. In work, the hoof should be moistened daily, and 
afterwards smeared with some fat or ointment so as to 
preserve the elasticity of the horn. 



definition and symptoms of navicular disease. 407 

10. Navicular Disease 

is a chronic inflammation of the lower surface of the navicular 
bone and the portion of flexor perforans tendon passing below 
it. 

The disease consists essentially in change in the gliding 
surface of the navicular bone and of the cartilage covering it. 
The previously smooth surface of the bone becomes roughened, 
the tendon abraded, inflammation then increases, the portions 



G — -: 



a- 




-^v 



I'IG. 385.— Pi'eparation illustrating navicular disease. 1, os pedis ; 2, Hexor pedis perforans 
tendon drawn downwards; 3, lower (gliding) surface of the navicular bone; 4, coronet 
bone ; a and b, roughened, abraded spots on the flexor perforans tendon; c, eroded spots 
on the navicular bone ; d, proliferations-from periosteum on the upper margin of the os 
pedis. 



of the tendon involved may, in extreme cases, become necrotic, 
and still further aggravate the existing mischief; finally, 
periostitis and rarefying ostitis set in, and deposits form 
around the margins of the bone. 

Occurrence. — The lameness usually afi'ects one or both of the 
fore-feet. Horses with very concave soles appear more subject 



408 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

to it than those with flat hoofs. Compared with other forms 
of lameness it may be said to be rare. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms are slight tenderness on 
starting; the animal goes rather short or stumbles, but this 
soon wears off. Next, the foot or feet are ' rested ' after any 
considerable exertion, but in many cases it is only after 
months that the symptoms become distinct. The foot is then 
extended and directed slightly towards the side, the fetlock is 
more upright in order to minimise tension on the flexor pedis 
perforans tendon, the gait becomes clumsy and difficult, 
especially at the beginning of movement and on hard, uneven 
ground. When only one hoof suffers, there is distinct 
lameness, but when both are affected, the gait is short and 
cramped, and the animal seems to suffer most at the moment 
when weic^ht falls on the limb. Where the disease is well 
developed, the fore-limb is advanced with the toe first, and the 
pace comes to resemble a run. Attention to the feet and rest 
diminish the symptoms. The lameness is most marked- on 
leaving the stable, but diminishes as the animal moves ; after 
some considerable time, however, especially if the pace be 
rapid, lameness returns. 

In old standing cases the hoof is contracted. On compress- 
ing the heels or the body of the frog pain is evinced. Increased 
pulsation of the digital arteries and increased warmth of the 
hoof are seldom present, but pain and thickening of the flexor 
tendons in the depression of the heel can sometimes be noted. 
When the foot is oblique contraction soon sets in. Slight 
rings sometimes form on the horny wall. Any considerable 
weight thrown on the diseased hoof causes pain, especially 
when the horse has prominent frogs and is unshod. Sometimes 
there is atrophy of the nmscles of the shoulder and fore-arm. 

The causes are severe strains, due to severe rapid work on 
hard, rough, or frozen streets. The lameness is most frequent 
in riding horses. 

The prognosis is unfavourable, for even when the diseased 
process can be checked the freedom of movement never com- 
pletely returns, because the destructive changes which have 
taken place are permanent. The animal's worth is thus 
greatly diminished. 

Treatment, strictly speaking, is only palliative. Attempts 



I 



SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT OF NAVICULAR DISEASE. 



409 



should be made to diminish the pressure between the navicular 
bone and llexor pedis perforans tendon, and, in the early stages, 
to diminish inflammation. First of all the hoof must be 
softened and permitted to dilate. The shoe should be removed 
and the entire hoof immersed for twenty-four to forty-eight 
hours in a poultice, frequently moistened with lukewarm 
water. The hoof is then trimmed and shod. The points to 




Fig. 3S6. 



Fig. 387. 



Fig. 388. 



Fig. 386.— Showing normal relations of the bones of the foot and of the flexor perforans 
tendon. 

Fig. 387. — Formation causing increased strain on navicular bone and perforans tendon. 

Fig. 388.— Showing the manner of trimming the hoof so as to diminish, as far as possible, 
the effects of navicular disease. (The above illustrations are diagrammatic.) 

remember are (1) that the hoof should be somewhat more 
upright than the fetlock, and (2) that it should be dilated. 
The toe is, therefore, lowered freely, but the heels spared. 
The frog is cut down to the height of the bearing margins of 
the heels and a flat shoe, with thin heels and bar-clips, applied 
and dilated to the extent of about ^ inch. The toe should be 
' rolled.' 

For the next four to six weeks the feet should be kept well 
moistened. At nisjht the animal should be bedded down witli 
good straw. The hoof, if its form allow, should, during this 
time, be once or twice redilated. In any case, however, pre- 
cautions should be taken by using fat or ointment to prevent 
the horn becoming dry. If a long rest cannot be given the 
coronets may be repeatedly blistered with a 1 to 8 ointment 
of biniodide of mercury. As neither shoeing, nor the use of 
the firing iron, nor of blisters completely restores the action, 
neurectomy has, for many years, been resorted to as a remedy. 
It certainly removes sensation from the foot and once more 
renders the animal useful, but the foot is then no longer spared, 
and when the animal, especially if a hunter, is used on hard 



410 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 

ground, the pedal or navicular bone may be fractured. Not 
infrequently the flexor tendons undergo a kind of colloid de- 
generation and become ruptured. 

So far as shoeing is concerned, the before-mentioned prin- 
ciples apply. Bar shoes are contra-indicated and horses usually 
go best in ordinary shoes, especially those which raise the back 
of the hoof, that is, shoes with thick heels or with calkins. 
Attempts may with advantage be made to dilate the hoof and 
to diminish concussion. The action of a shoe which raises the 
back of the hoof will immediately be seen from the diagram- 
matic figs. 386, 387, and 388. 

The improvement produced by high heels depends on the 
concussion being conveyed in greater degree to the pedal bone, 
while pressure on the perforans tendon is diminished. 

11. Curb, Strain of Flexor Tendons, and Capped Elbow. 

Special shoes have been devised for the treatment of each of 
these conditions. A few notes on some of those more com- 
monly employed are given below. 



STAMPED WEDGE-HEELED HIND SHOE 

(Figs. 389, 390). 

Made from f X J inch iron. 

The above shoe is intended to give relief in cases of curb, 
spavin, or injury to ligaments and tendons, by raising the heels 
of the hind-foot. Should the horse not be lame or be adjudged 
by the veterinary surgeon to be capable of light work, he may 
be worked in this shoe. 

The height of the wedges is l| inches. 




Fig. 389.— Stamped Avedge-heeled hind shoe. Made from f x ^ inch iron. 




Fig. 390. 



[To face p. 410. 




Fig. 391. — Fullered wedge -heeled hind shoe (for harness horse). 
Made from f x ^ inch iron. 




Fig. 392. — Fullered patten hind shoe. Made from f x f inch iron. 
To face ^. 411.] 



SHOES FOR DISEASED HOCKS AND INJURED TENDONS. 411 



FULLERED WEDGE-HEELED HIND SHOE 
FOR HARNESS HORSE (Fig. 391). 

Made from |- X ^ inch iron. 

Many horses suffering from diseased hocks and tendons can 
be worked in this shoe, the purpose of which is similar to that 
of the shoe preceding, save that it is for a lighter class of horse. 

The height of the wedges is 1^ inches. 



FULLERED PATTEN HIND SHOE (Fig. 392). 
Made from |- x |- inch iron. 

Patten shoes are intended for horses suffering from injuries 
to tendons and ligaments, but which must necessarily be rested. 
That shown is suitable for a thoroughbred. 

The patten (sometimes termed ' staple ') is only 1|- inches 
in height and is set on obliquely, so that the cross bar rests fiat 
on the ground. 

It is made separately from tlie shoe, and after the usual 
fitting is complete is ' shut-on ' to the shoe. 

A defect in the shoe illustrated is that the nail holes extend 
rather too far back. 



412 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 



STAMPED PATTEN (OE ' STAPLE ') POKE SHOE 

(Fig. 393). 

Made from J X -g- inch iron. 

The shoe illustrated is for a recent and severe case of ' break- 
down '" or cut tendon, where the tendon has been more or less 
severed. It affords by far the safest and most convenient 
aiethod of raising the heel under such circumstances. 

The staple is rather more than 3 inches in height. 



STAMPED PATTEN (OE 'STAPLE') HIND SHOE 

(Fig. 394). 

Made from § X |- inch iron. - - :^' 

This shoe is only for animals which are resting, either in the 
stable or in, say, a straw yard. Its purpose is similar to that 
of the other staple shoe described. 

The staple is three inches high, and spreads outwards as it 
approaches the ground, so as to give a wide base of support. 
With this object the sides are bent outwards and the bottom is 
set on obliquely, so that when the shoe is affixed and the animal 
stands upon it the whole of the bottom bar is in contact with 
the ground. 




Fig. 393. -Stamped patten fore shoe. Made from | x | inch ir 



on. 




Fig. 394. -Stamped patten hind shoe. Made from ^ x i inch iron. 

ITofacep. 412. 




Fig. 395. — Patten hind shoe. Made from f x f inch iron. 




Fig. 396. —Fullered seated fore shoe. Made from g x J inch iron. 
To face p. 413.] 



SHOES FOR CURB, STRAINED TEXDONS, AND CAPPED ELBOW. 413 



PATTEN HIND SHOE (Fig. 395). 

Made from ;| X |- inch iron. 

The shoe from which this iUustratioii is made was for a foot 
4|- inches in width. The patten is 4 inches in height, and has 
two holes in the uprights through which straps are passed and 
secured, through the medium of a pad, above the hock. The 
pad which is fixed on the hock has a buckle on either side to 
receive the straps. 

This shoe is for cases where the flexor tendons of the hind 
leg have been partially divided, as happens in race horses when 
they are struck by the fore-foot of the animal immediatelj 
following, and in other animals under a variety of circumstances. 
The horse must necessarily be placed in slings. 



rULLEEED SEATED FOEE SHOE (Fig. 396). 

Made from g- X ^ inch iron. 

To prevent horses bruising their elbows, and so producing 
the unsightly swelling termed capped elbow, the shoes must be 
sloped off very obliquely at the heels, which should be kept of 
a rounded form, and should closely follow the contour of the 
foot, i.e., should be fitted ' fine.' This is, in fact, one of the few 
conditions in which 'fine ' fitting at the heels is necessary or 
desirable. 



APPENDIX A. 

THE SHOEING OF OXEN. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE STEUCTUEE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX'S FOOT. 

As it is sometimes necessary to shoe oxen employed for work, 
a, short anatomical description of the foot may not be inappro- 
priate. The ox's foot differs from that of the horse in possess- 
ing two distinct toes, each consisting of three bones, like the 
single toe of the horse, but presenting certain special anatomical 
features of its own. The rounded or triangular horny appen- 
dages at the posterior surface of the fetlock joint are termed 
after-claws. They need not occupy our further attention. 

The lower end of the metacarpal bone is divided by a deep 
cleft into two distinct parts, an inner and an outer, each of 
which comports itself to its particular toe just as the lower 
end of the great metacarpus of the horse to its single toe. 
In other words, each portion of the lower end of the metacarpus 
presents an articular surface, which forms, with its special 
pastern and two sesamoid bones, a distinct ginglymoid joint ; 
the ox in fact has, at the point where the horse's fetlock joint 
occurs, hvo fetlock joints. With regard to individual bones, 
the two first bones of the toes or phalanges in form and relation 
resemble to a considerable extent the first phalanx of the 
horse, though they are comparatively shorter and weaker. The 
same is true of the two coronet bones or second phalanges, 
which are comparatively somewhat longer than the horse's 
coronet bone, and differ from it in that their two lateral 



416 



STKUCTUEE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX S FOOT. 



surfaces, which meet in front, are of a more triangular form. 
The upper articular surface of each coronet bone is concave, 
the lower is convex, and extends almost as far backwards as 
the middle of the posterior surface. 

The third phalanx, or bone of the claw, however, differs 
markedly from the horses pedal bone. The claw bone is 
peculiarly formed, having been compared to a wedge or three- 
sided pyramid, the point of which is directed forwards and 
downwards. Each claw bone presents an upper or articular 
surface, an outer turned away from the cleft of the hoof, an 
inner turned towards it, a lower surface, an anterior and a 
posterior end, and three margins. The articular surface is 




Fig. 397.— Antero-external view of ox's left fore-foot. 1, lower end of metacarpal bone r. 
2, external sesamoid bone; 3, external, and 3', internal pastern bone; 4, external, and 
4', internal coronet bone ; 5, external, and 5', internal claw bone ; 6, left navicular bone. 

concave and extends forwards and upwards as the pyramidal 
process. The outer surface is slightly convex, with numerous 
small apertures and with a flat groove or furrow running from 
behind forwards. The slightly concave inner surface exhibits 
at its upper posterior part a large aperture, corresponding tO' 
the plantar foramen (see p. 29), and extending into the 
interior of the bone. The lower surface slopes away from the 
cleft of the hoof towards the outside. It is comparatively 
smooth and provided on its lower part with a shallow groove. 
The anterior margin formed by the union of the outer and 
inner surfaces is blunt, the outer margin sharp and curved, the 



ANATOMY OF OX's FOOT. 417 

inner margin, in consequence of the groove above it, exhibits a 
ledge at its anterior part. The front end is pointed, the back 
is blunt, and exhibits a transverse furrow, covered with carti- 
lage, for articulation with the navicular bone. In oxen the 
prolongations corresponding to the wings of the horse's pedal 
bone are absent and there are no lateral cartilages. 

In oxen, as in horses, the joints are completed by other small 
bones, which, in general, resemble the sesamoid and navicular 
bones but are somewhat smaller. Each fetlock joint has two 
sesamoids and each claw joint a navicular bone. 

Broadly speaking, the connections of the joints with one 
another and with the bones named resemble those of the horse, 
especially in regard to tlie lateral and capsular ligaments. 

The chief differences are as follows. The suspensory liga- 
ment of the sesamoid bones or superior metacarpo-phalangeal 
ligament exhibits more muscular fibre than in the horse. As 
it serves both fetlock joints it is divided at the posterior surface 
of the great metacarpal into three parts, two lateral, small in 
size, and a strong central ligament. The two lateral ligaments 
extend to the two outer sesamoid bones and send in addition a 
cord (ligamentum extensorum) to the extensor tendons of their 
respective claws (fig. 398, 4'). The middle and strongest limb 
divides a short distance below into three parts, the two lateral 
of which run to the two inner sesamoid bones. The middle 
portion, on the other hand, passes in a forward direction through 
the groove on the lower end of the great metacarpus, then 
divides into two branches, which join the extensor tendons of 
the inner and outer claws respectively (fig. 398, 4"). 

The inferior sesamoideal ligament is absent. 

The suffraginis or pastern bone and the bone of the claw are 
connected by external and internal suffragino-pedal ligaments, 
which are particularly strong and unite with the ligamentous 
tissues arisincr from the coronet bone. 

The cruciform ligament or transverse ligament of the toe con- 
necting the two claws consists of two cords, which arise from 
the postero-superior parts of the coronet bones turned away 
from the cleft of the claw, run obliquely downwards, become 
more or less intimately fused at the point where they cross, 
and are finally inserted into the inner {i.e., opposing) surfaces of 
the claw bones and into the inner extremities of the navicular 

2d 



418 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX S FOOT. 



bones. They cover the posterior surfaces of the perforans 
tendons of the claw, and serve principally to prevent the claws 
being too widely separated. 

The movements of the joints of the toe are effected by 
muscles lying in the region of the fore-arm, and arranged in 
general like the analogous muscles of the horse. As, however, 
in the ox the muscles and tendons are attached to a double 
limb below the fetlock, some differences necessarily exist. 

Each of the two claws has a separate extensor muscle, as 
well as a muscle which is common to both claws. The muscle 
corresponding to the extensor suffraginis of the horse is, in 




Fig. 398.— Autero-extenial view of ox's left fore-foot. 1, extensor tendon of outer claw; 
2, extensor tendon of inner claw ; 3, extensor tendon common to both claws ; 3', limb of 
do. attached to left, and 3", to right claw; 4, superior sesamoideal ligament; 4' and 4", 
reinforcing slips from same to extensor tendon ; 5, left ' after-claw.' 

the ox, the extensor of the outer claw. From the compound 
extensor of the foot, which consists of several masses of muscle, 
two tendons spring ; one passes to the bones of the inner claw 
becoming the extensor tendon of the inner claw, the other 
passes down the centre of the great metacarpal bone and at its 
lower end divides into two parts, one of which is attached to 
t,he pedal bone of the outer, the other to the pedal bone of the 
inner toe. 

The arrangement in the hind-foot is similar. The extensor 
(peroneus), whose tendon in the horse runs parallel with that 
of the extensor pedis, is in the ox the extensor of the outer 



ANATOMY OF OX'S FOOT. 419 

claw. The exteusor pedis becomes the extensor of the inner 
claw and also acts in common on both claws. 

The arrangement of the flexor pedis perforans and perforatus 
tendons is rather more complicated than in the horse. Suffice 
it, however, for our purpose to say that the tendon of the 
superficial flexor perforatus of the toe forms a sheath for the 
tendon of the deep flexor (perforans). This sheath divides on 
either side, forming a kind of channel, which surrounds each 
limb of the deep flexor after its division. The tendons of the 
superficial flexor, which are pierced by those of the deep flexor 
near the upper end of the suffraginis bone, become inserted 
into the lower end of the suffraginis, and (chiefly) the supero- 
posterior part of the coronet bone of either claw. Each of two 
limbs of the tendon of the deep flexor of the toe (perforans 
tendon) is attached to the postero-inferior surface of its 
respective pedal bone. 

The tendons of the flexor muscles are held in place by a 
tendino-ligamentous apparatus and by strong transverse liga- 
ments. The limbs of the flexor pedis tendons are also supported 
by the cruciform inter-digital ligaments. 

As already stated, lateral cartilages and plantar cushion are 
absent in the ox. 

In relation to the blood-vessels it should be noted that in 
the fore-foot the main artery passes from behind forwards 
between the two after-claws towards the cleft of the foot, 
whilst that passing down the anterior surface of the great 
metacarpal runs in an opposite direction, that is, backwards, 
towards the same space. The inner digital arteries are far 
larger than the outer. The veins do not form such rich 
plexuses as in the horse. 

The digital nerves in their general distribution resemble 
those of the horse. 

With a few exceptions the protective structures of the 
terminal digits correspond with those of the horse. The skin 
is specially modified as in the latter to form a horn-secreting 
structure in which a perioplic band, coronary band, sensitive wall 
and sensitive sole may be distinguished ; the sensitive frog is 
absent. The perioplic band lies between the skin and coronary 
band and surrounds each toe like a ring. Posteriorly it becomes 
much broader and forms slight bulbs, which may be connected 



420 



STEUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX S FOOT. 



with those of the opposite claw by a more or less well-marked 
bridge. The coronary band lies between the perioplic band 
and sensitive wall. It is comparatively broad but flat. At 
its broadest spot it may measure, according to the size of the 
animal, as much as 1^ inches. In the direction of the bulbs 
it first becomes slender and then totally disaj)pears. 

The sensitive wall covers the two lateral surfaces and the 
anterior margin of the bone of the claw ; it extends from the 
coronary band downwards to the plantar margin, and back- 
wards as far as the bulbs. It exhibits a large number of 
parallel laminae, which decrease in length towards the bulbs 
and to a more marked degree on the inner than on the outer 
surface of the claw. The number of lamiucT may be estimated 
at about a thousand. 



i 



i^ z t i 




Fig. 399.— Supero-posterior view of an ox's hoof removed by maceration (seen from the 
mner side). Ihe inner wall is foreshortened owing to the point of view 1 Derio^le 
which at 1' becomes continuous with the bulbs; 2, furrow for reception of coronarv 
band; 3, laminal sheath of the outer wall, and 3', of the inner wall; 4, upper surface of 

The sensitive sole covers the under surface of the bone of 
the claw and extends in a backward direction, becoming con- 
tinuous with that portion of the coronary band forming the 
bulbs, there being no distinct boundary between the two 
structures. 

With the exception of the sensitive wall the portions named 
display a number of very small papilla from which the horn 
of the claw is secreted, the best marked and largest appearing 
at the perioplic band. In the ox the laminae of the sensitive 
wall exhibit no secondary laminae such as have been described 
as existing on the sensitive laminae of the horse. f 

The horny claw is the product of this specially modified 
corium. It may, in general terms, be compared with the half 
of a horse's hoof, from which, however, the frog is absent. We 



THE ox's HOOF. 421 

distinguish in it a wall and a sole. The wall can a^ain be 
divided into an outer and an inner part. The portion furthest 
from the cleft of the foot, i.c^ the outer part, is convex and 
somewhat curved inwards at the toe. The portion towards 
the cleft is smooth and usually slightly concave. The two 
sides of the wall meet in a blunt, somewhat elongated anterior 
border. The upper part of the horny wall or perioplic ring 
is formed by the perioplic band and runs backwards to 
form the rounded liorny bulbs. The coronary band rests in 
a fiat, broad furrow at tlie upper part of the wall. The horny 
laminoB of the wall correspond in number and size to the 
sensitive laminae. The space below marginated by the wall is 
enclosed by the horny sole, which in front is pointed and very 
strong and towards the back becomes continuous with the horny 
bulbs. The horny bulbs of the two toes are sometimes con- 
nected by a bridge of soft horn. The wall is united to the 
horny sole through the medium of the white line as in the 
horse. Needless to say that in oxen, in which the walls are 
not bent inwards as in the horse, the bars are wanting. The 
€laws of the hind-foot are somewhat longer and more slender 
than those of the fore-foot. 



CHAPTER 11. 



THE SHOEING OF OXEN. 



The shoeing of oxen differs essentially from that of horses, 
because the ox's foot is cloven, while the pastern, coronet, and 
pedal bones are in duplicate. The ox, therefore, may be said 
to have on each limb two hoofs, termed claws, which can be 
distinguished as an outer and an inner. The walls are thinner 
than those of the horse. The sole is thin and the bulbs low. 
As a consequence the shoe must be thin and broad. The nail 




Fig. 400.— Ox's cIrav with shoe attached. 

holes should be punched fine and the nails should be short but 
strong. Each shoe is provided with a long thin clip at the 
inner margin of the toe, which is bent upwards and outwards 
around the point of the claw (fig. 400). A clip on the outer 
margin of the shoe increases the hold. In the Saxon Voigtland 
the inner clip, which lies in the cleft of the claw, starts from 



MEANS OF RESTRAINT. 423 

the posterior third of the shoe and is then bent forwards, 
upwards, and outwards over the wall of the toe. The smaller 
clip is at the outer part of the toe, close to the anterior margin 
of the shoe. This shoe (fig. 401) is more difficult to fashion, 
but when well made fits better than any other. To apply a 
single shoe to the two claws would, of course, prevent the 
natural movement of the parts. 

The fixing of the foot for shoeing is often very difficult. It 
is first necessary to fasten the animal's head to a tree or wall. 
The fore-foot is then secured with a broad piece of webbing, 
which is thrown over the withers and held on the opposite 
side. The hind-foot is lifted by means of a round piece of 
wood thrust in front of one hock and above the other and 
grasped by two men, or may be kept bent by applying a leg 
twitch above the hock. Oxen may also be shod in an ox 




Fig. 401.— Voigtland shoe for oxen. 

travis — the foot being secured in a grooved wooden arm and 
the ox's body supported by a sling. 

In places where many oxen are shod a travis is very useful 
(fig. 402). This travis consists of four strong posts 11 
feet high (of which 3 feet is firmly fixed in the earth) and 
8 inches square {aa, hb), fastened together by longitudinal 
and transverse stays (cc, d). In the middle of the two front 
posts is the head post (e) of equal height and strength. Five 
feet above the ground this is provided with an aperture, 4 
inches broad and 20 high, in which revolves a pulley (^) ; below 
this is a windlass {k) with ratchet and pawl for the purpose of 
winding up the rope fastened round the animal's horns. Each 
pair of posts have, on their front or back surface, a deep slot about 
3 inches broad {n^ within which run two rails (o and ji), capable 



424 



THE SHOEING OF OXEX. 



of being raised and lowered or fastened at any point by means' 
of iron pins. The two posts to the right are provided with a 
revolving eight-sided axle, to one end of which is attached a 
ratchet and pawl. On one of the eight surfaces of this axle 
are six iron hooks, to which the belly piece can be attached. 




Opposite the axle and at the same height is a fixed baulk (/) 
with six hooks {(jg). The belly piece, 6 feet in length and 6 
inches in breadth, carries at either end cords 2^ feet in length, 
provided with iron rings at their free ends. On the inner side 



THE OX TRAVIS. 



425 




426 THE SHOEING OF OXEN. 

of the two front posts is a neck piece {7i) and breast piece^ 
which by means of slots and iron pins may be raised or lowered. 
Each of the two hind posts has at the back an iron bearer 18 
inches in length (s), the free ends of which carry rings 6 inches 
across {t). Through these a stout rod, padded at the centre, 
may be thrust and fixed by two pins. Above this bearer are 
two iron hooks for fixing the breeching. 

Before the animal is placed in the travis the neck piece is 
raised, the breast piece depressed, and the belly piece allowed 
to hang from the fixed cross piece. The animal is then placed 
in position, a rope thrown over its horns and the end passed 
over the pulley {%) fixed to the hook on the windlass and drawn 
up sufficiently tight to fix the head. The neck piece and 
breast piece are then respectively lowered and raised, the 
breeching fastened to the point marked %t and the belly 
piece attached to the axle, so that this latter may be drawn 
far enough up, if necessary, to completely support the animal's 
weight. 

The front feet during shoeing are fastened to the side bars 
by means of a cord attached to the fetlock. The cord is passed 
a few times round the bar and fixed to the hook (r). The 
hind-feet are fastened by a slip-knot passed round the fetlock 
and drawn up over the cross bar, so that the front surface of 
the fetlock lies on the padded part of the bar, the foot being 
fixed in this position by passing the cord a number of times 
around the bar and there knotting it. 

When no travis is at hand one may be improvised out of 
very simple materials, as, for instance, the waggon shown iu 
fig. 403.* The ox is fixed by the head to the side of the 
waggon between the front and hind wheel. A strong bar is 
then slipped under one hind leg and between the axle and 
upright of the front wheel ; the opposite end of the bar is then 
lifted until the animal is thrown somewhat towards the other side 
and leans heavily on the pole. The pole can then be fastened 
to the waggon by means of a rope and the outer leg lifted as 
usual. In this way, with one assistant and without any par- 
ticular difficulty, the most troublesome ox can be controlled. 

* Although this form of waggon is not used in England the illustration ha& 
been inserted, as, with its assistance, a similar travis may readily be improvised., 
though necessarily with different apparatus. 




To face p. 427.] 



APPENDIX B. 



I. FAERIERS' TEACHIXG SCHOOLS. 

The farriers' trade in England being still open to all comers, 
and not restricted, as in Germany and certain other Conti- 
nental countries, to duly instructed and certificated persons, 
it is not always easy to induce those desiring to enter its ranks 
to fully qualify themselves for their life's work. Nor indeed 
are the opportunities afforded them. At the present time the 
old system of apprenticeship is fast dying out, and we cannot 
help again expressing our regret that the Worshipful Company 
of Farriers should have so neglected their opportunities as to 
entirely forego the exercise of the powers they took to en- 
courage and revive it. Apprenticeship still represents the 
only system under which youths can become good workmen. 
The acquisition of a few half-understood phrases about the 
anatomy of the foot is of no value, and the fullest knowledge 
of anatomy and physiology is absolutely useless unless conjoined 
with a thorough mastery of the craft, and that education of the 
eye and hand which only comes by years of steady practice 
under a master's supervision. 

It is a fact, we believe, that at the present time no school, 
competent to convey this instruction, exists in England. But 
for those who have already made some progress two public 
bodies at least, viz., the Berkshire County Council and the Bath 
and West of England Agricultural Society, have provided much 
needed assistance by instituting travelling schools. A photo- 
graph of the Berkshire County Councils School, with the 
demonstrator and class, forms the frontispiece to this volume, 
and another view, showing the van, etc., is given here. The 
van contains two fires, wnth anvils, vices, and all necessary 



428 farriers' teaching schools. 

appliances. The clemoDstrator is a man of proved ability, and 
is supervised and assisted by a member of the Eoyal College 
of Veterinary Surgeons, who delivers a course of lectures on the 
anatomy and physiology of the foot. As stated, instruction is 
not given to beginners, but only to those already possessing a 
fair knowledge of the trade. In the cases of the West of 
England Association, the course consists of ten lectures, for 
which a fee of 2s. 6d. is charged. The classes contain four 
pupils each, and as these cannot always attend on consecutive 
nights, two classes are formed and receive instruction on 
alternate nights. Instruction begins at 6 p.m. 

The pupils are shown the correct methods of shoeing every 
kind of horse they are likely to meet witli, and how to adapt 
shoes to abnormal feet. A typical collection of shoes and 
hoofs is always on exhibition at the school. In addition to the 
apparatus contained in the van, the Society provides all 
necessary tools and appliances for pupils' use. 

In the practical course the pupils work in paii-s, each pupil 
making one or more shoes, which are examined and criticised 
by the instructor, who points out the defects and the methods 
of avoiding or remedying them. Sometimes it is even necessaiy 
to show the pupil how to handle his tools so as to obtain the 
best results. 

The first shoes made are usually fore and hind cart, and 
the pupil gradually passes on, as he becomes adept, to the 
making of riding and carriage horse shoes, concave fullered 
shoes, bar shoes, ' dub-toed ' shoes, ' cradled ' shoes, ' set-heeled ' 
shoes, ' diamond-toed ' hind shoes, and in fact every kind of patho- 
logical shoe. 

One or two e\'eiiiugs a week are usually set aside for shoeing 
such horses as can be obtained in the neighbourhood, when 
instruction is given in handling animals, picking up feet, taking 
off shoes, preparing feet for shoeing, and (after making satis- 
factory shoes) nailing-on. 

From the foregoing it will be seen that, despite the public- 
spirited ellbrts of our County Councils and Agricultural Societies, 
England is still far behind Continental countries in providing 
technical education for farriers, and it is greatly to be desired 
either that a stimulus be given to the system of apprentice- 
ship, or that proper teaching schools for farriers (which could 



THE CURRICULUM. 429 

be attached to tlie Veterinary and Agricultural Schools) be 
instituted. In London, the excessive pressure of work and the 
introduction of machine-made shoes and nails have dealt a 
death-blow to ' skill ' of the highest kind. Shop-boys graduate 
into doormen in the course of a couple of years without having 
seen, much less practised, one half of tlieir craft; and were it 
not for the constant influx of country workmen into the 
Metropolis, efficient doormen, capable at a pinch of fitting or 
making a shoe, would cease to exist. 



II. SHOEING COMPETITIONS. 

For competitions at shows temporary sheds are required, 
and the arrangement of forges, stands, and enclosures for the 
public requires some care and forethought. The Plan here- 
with shows one method of utilising a space about 70 feet 
square, and obviates the necessity for a long description. 

The sheds are formed of skeleton wooden frames covered 
with canvas, except in the case of those containing the forges, 
where wood should be used for the sides and corrugated iron 
for the roof, to avoid the chance of ignition by a flue becoming 
overheated or of sparks flying from the anvils. The stalls for 
horses should be floored with wood, and, to protect the workers 
in case of rain, roofed with canvas (see Plan) ; in very wet 
weather a layer of sawdust spread on the floor will be found 
to prevent horses or men slipping. A stout wooden rail 
should be provided at the end furthest from the anvils, to which 
the horses can be fastened. 

The open ends of sheds containing the anvils should, if 
possible, look towards the north, so as to secure a good light 
without the sun shining in the face of the fireman. 

A stand for the public will be found of advantage, as many 
persons interested in the competitions do not care to be jostled 
by the crowd which usually collects on these occasions, and 
will gladly pay a small sum for the privilege of a seat. 

Competitors should be required to bring their own tools 
and nails, and to provide a striker, but the show committee 
should find everything else. An experienced farrier should 



430 SHOEING COMPETITIONS. 

be in attendance to keep the fires going when not in use, and 
to clean out the sheds. 

There are generally two classes, nags and heavy horses. 
The liorses required should be carefully selected by the 
stewards or judges the day previous to the competition, care 
being taken to provide animals fairly representing each class, 
and to exclude those with broken or defective feet, or which 
are known to be difficult to shoe. 

On the day of the competition neither members of the 
public nor competitors should be allowed access to the animals 
until work actually begins, otherwise the ' old hands,' if they 
see a horse with bad feet, will hold back and so delay progress. 

Numbers having been attached to each horse's mane or 
halter, a corresponding series is drawn by the competitors, each 
of whom afterwards takes the horse thus assigned him. The 
men are then assembled, and the steward in charge recites the 
conditions of the competition, and explains that each man must 
be prepared to start when called on, failing which he will be 
put last on the list or disqualified. The judge or judges may 
add a few words, and should claim the right to stop any com- 
petitor at any stage without assigning to him a reason. All 
preparations being complete, the men's numbers are suspended 
above the shoeing sheds (a common practice is to take odd and 
even numbers alternately), the horses are brought from the 
stable, and work commences. Men who have finished should 
at once return to their room, and should not be allowed to walk 
about or in any way interfere with those at work. 

The competitor is usually asked to make a fore and a hind 
shoe, and to put on the fore shoe in a given time. In the greater 
number of instances this is a sufficient test, but, as shown by 
the appended form of marking-book, it is not uncommon to 
require the hind shoe also to be nailed on. Most judges 
prefer to divide the operations into three parts: (1) Taking 
off shoe and preparing foot ; (2) Making shoe ; (3) Fitting and 
nailing-on. The question of time is of minor importance, 
though the total time allowed should not be exceeded. In a 
close competition the saving of a few minutes may serve to 
mark out the winner. The system of marking varies. Some 
judges use numbers, others terms, like fair, good, very good, 
etc. It is difficult to say which is the better. It is very 



CONDUCT OF THE COMPETITION. 431 

■difficult to judge to one point, and we suspect that in most 
cases judges make their awards less by the strict reading of 
their notes than by the general impression derived from watch- 
ing the competitor. Numbers awarded at any early stage may 
be quite discounted by some glaring error committed later. 
We refrain from offering further suggestions on the matter of 
judging, as the very fact of a person occupying the position 
of judge presupposes him possessed of a full and intimate 
knowledge of the technique of horse-shoeing. 



432 



SHOEING COMPETITIONS. 



Til 

o 



O 

o 

o 

I— I 

o 

w 



CO 
-73 

< 




Remarks. 




1 





a5 

s 




Nailing on 
Shoes. 






P 





Fitting Shoes. 






CD 





03 
• i-H 






05 





Taking off Shoes 

and preparing 

Feet. 


s 




03 





d 





o 
o 

6 



P4 
R 



p4 
o 



( 433 ) 



GROUND PLAN OF ECJILDINGS REQUIRED FOR SHOEING 

COMPETITION. GROUND 24 YARDS SQUARE. 

Scale J inch to the yard. 



REFERENCE TO NUMBERS ON PLAN. 




29 

/Jfi: WIDE 



27 



23 


24- 


25 


26 



27 



27 



-Hii-H 



29 



9 FT. WIDE 




29 



31 



3 FT. W/DE 




1. Doorway, 4 ft. wide, leading to 
stabling for horses, 

2. Competitors' room, 16 ft. by 15 
ft. 

3. 4, 5, and 6. Blacksmiths' shops, 
9 ft. wide. 

7. Judges' and Stewards' room, 16 
ft. by 15 ft. 

8, 9, 10, and 11. Forges, 3 yards 
square. 

12, 13, 14, and 15. Anvils. 
16, 17, 18, and 19. Benches and 
vices. 

20. Doorway, 3 ft, wide. 

21. Doorway 3 ft. wide. 



22. Space for Judges, 9 ft. wide. 

23, 24, 25, and 26. Shoeing sheds, 
8 ft.' wide, 7 ft. 6 in. high to eaves, 
and 12 ft. long, boarded up to 4 ft. 
6 in. at front, and with wooden floors. 

27. Space between shoeing sheds and 
standing place for public, 9 ft. wide 
all round as shown. 

28. Drop rail, for admitting to shoe- 
ing sheds and smiths' shops, 3 ft. 6 in. 
high. 

29. Standing room for ]mblic. 

30. Grand stand for public, 18 ft. 
wide. 

31. Entrance, 6 ft, wide. 

2e 



INDEX 



Advancing foot, method of, 182. 
Aluminium shoes, 132. 
Ancients unacquainted with horse-shoe- 
ing, 3. 
Anti-concussive mechanism of limb, 112. 
Arteries of foot, 54. 
Asses, shoeing of, 310. 

" Back," making a, 142. 
Bare-foot, working, 210. 
hsLT shoes, special, 324-327. 
Bars of foot, 70, 77. 

,, angle of, 77. 

,, relations and extent of, 78. 
" Binding," a cause of lameness, 380. 
Blood-vessels, description of, 52. 
Bones of foot, 24. 

The great metacarpus, 24. 

The suflfraginis bone or 1st phalanx, 
24. 

The sesamoid bones, 26. 

The coronet bone or 2nd phalanx, 27. 

The pedal bone or 3rd phalanx, 28. 

The navicular bone, 30. 
Bulbs, cellular, of foot, 49. 

Calkins, 147. 

,, disadvantages of, 215. 
** Canker '' of the frog or sole, 400. 

,, special shoes for dressing, 

383-385, 401, 402. 
Capillaries, description of, 53. 
Capped elbow, shoe for, 413. 
Carriage horses, general remarks on 
shoeing, 236. 
,, ,, special shoes for, 

241-243. 
Cart horses, general remarks on shoeing, 
247. 
,, ,, special shoes for, 249-252. 
Cartilage, description of, 45. 

,, lateral, 46. 
Celtic shoes, 5. 

Changing the style of shoeing, 264. 
Charlier shoe and system, 254. 

,, tip, 258. 
Cogs, frost, 164. 
Competitions, shoeing, 429. 



Competitions, ground plan of buildings 
for, 433. 
,, judge's book for, 432. 

Concussion, how it is neutralised, 113. 
Conformation of foot, 179. 

„ limbs (fore), 172. 

„ (hind), 177. 
Contraction of heels, 340. 

,, ,, predisposing causes, 

343. 
,, ,, exciting causes, 345. 

,, ,, treatment, 347, 359. 

,, ,, mechanical treat- 

ment, 350. 
,, >j De Fay's shoe for, 

350. 
,, ,, Hartmann's expand- 

ing shoes for, 350. 
,, ,, Einsiedel's shoe for, 

351. 
,, foot, special shoes, etc. for, 

353, 354. 
,, ,, operation for, 355. 

,, ,, weak heels, 356. 

,, ,, local, 357. 

Control of horse, 197. 
Corium, 61. 

Corn, fitting shoe for, 322. 
Corns, 387. 

,, microscopical changes in wall 

after, 388. 
,, varieties of, 389. 
,, special shoes for, 393-395. 
Coronary band, 68. 

,, plexus, 58. 

Cracks, transverse, of wall, 372. 
Curb, shoes for, 410, 411. 
Curvature, lateral, of hoof, 363. 
Cutigeral groove, 81. 
Cutting or striking, general remarks on, 
286. 
,, ,, special shoes for, 

288-300. 
,, ,, boots for, 291. 

,, ,, Delperier's remedy 

for, 291. 
,, ,, weighted shoes for, 

291. 



436 



INDEX. 



Development of hoof, periods in, 
101. 

Direction of horn cells in different 
structures, 98. 

Disadvantages of shoeing, 278. 

Disease of feet and limbs due to concus- 
sion, 280. 

Distortion, lateral, of hoof, 360. 

Dorsal flexion of fetlock, 118. 

"Dropped" sole, 333. 

,, ,, special shoes for, 334, 

335. 

Eaely German shoes, 12. 
Einsiedel's, von, winter shoe, 157. 
Elastic tissues of foot, 45. 

,, tissue, description of, 45. 
Epidermis, 61. 

Examination of horse after shoeing, 
277. 
,, prior to shoeing, 199. 

Expansion of hoof, early experiments 
on, 117. 
,, ,, general conclusions 

on, 117. 

Farriers' schools, 16, 427. 
Fire, farrier's, 142. 
Fitting the shoe, 265. 

,, J J to normal feet, 267. 

,,, ,, for irregular confor- 

mation of limbs, 
268. 
,, ,, for rapid work, 270. 

,, ,, for heavy draught 

horses, 270. 
Fitzwygram's (Sir F.) shoe, 260. 
Flat sole, 330. 

,, ,, shoe for, 330. 
Foot-axis, 181, 208. 
Foot, bones of, see " Bones." 
,, conformation of, 179. 
,, definition of, 20. 
,, structure of, 20. 
, , ligaments of, see ' ' Ligaments. " 
Forging, general remarks on, 282. 

,, special shoes for, 284-286. 
Forging the shoe, 140. 
,, a fore shoe, 143. 
,, a hind shoe, 144. 
,, a bar shoe, 146. 
Form, changes in, of hoof, 115. 
Frog, sensitive, 51, 72. 

,, horny, 88. 
Frog-stay, 88. 
Frost cogs, 164. 
,, nails, 155. 
,, stubs, 155. 
,, screws, 158. 
Fullering, 136. 

Functions, mechanical, of hoof, 111. 
,, of foot, 90. 



Function of sensitive wall, theories of, 
110. 



Glands, sebaceous, 63. 
Groove, cutigeral, 81. 
Growth of horn, influence of nerve 
supply on, 102. 



rve ■ 



Hacks, general remarks on shoeing, 217. 

,, special shoes for, 218, 219- 
Hair, growth of, 62. 
Hardening the hoof, ancient methods of, 

3. 
Heels of shoe, length of, 212. 
Hipposandals, 4. 
Histology of horn, 93. 
History of horse-shoeing, 2. 
Hoof, form and proportions of, 185. 
,, sound, characteristics of, 191. 
,, rings on, significance of, 192. 
,, wear of, 193. 

,, ointments, action and composition 
of, 314. 
Horn, histology of, 93. 
,, tubes or fibres, 94. 
,, cells, 96. 
,, cells, directions of, in different 

structures, 98. 
,, physical and chemical properties 

of, 99. 
,, pigment, 99. 
,, constitution of, 100, 
,, growth of, 103. 
,, substitutes for, 328. 
„ De Fay's artificial, 328. 
, , tumours, or keratomata, 390, 398. 
,, frog, how formed, 65. 
,, sole, how formed, 65. 
„ wall, 74. 
,, ,, division into toe, quarter, 

heel, etc., 75. 
,, ,, thickness of, 76. 
Horse nails, 272. 
Horse-shoeing a science and an art, 1. 

,, ,, objects of, 2. 

Horse-shoes, characters of, 133. 
,, form of, 133. 

,, breadth and thickness of, 

134. 
,, surfaces and borders of, 

135. 
,, machine-made, 151. 

" Huflederkitt," 328. 
Hunters, general remarks on shoeing, 
220. 
,, special shoes for, 223-228. 

Inflammation within the hoof, 316. 

,, symptoms 

of, 317. 

,, ,, ,, treatment 

of, 319. 



INDEX. 



437 



Irregular conformation , fitting 
shoes for, 2(58, 

Joint, ginglymoid, definition of, 
82. 
fetlock. 33. 
" pastern, 37. 
" pedal or cofiin, 38. 
Joint oil, 33. 

Keratomata, 390, 398. 
Knife, Arabian, 204. 
drawing, 203. 
"Knuckling over" at fetlock, 339. 
" " special shoes 

for, 338, 339. 

Laced-on shoes, 222. 
Lacunge of frog, 78. 
Lacuna, median, of frog, 89. 
Lameness from shoeing, statistics 

of, 279. 
Laminae, sensitive, 70. 

'• length of at various 
points, 71. 
horn, 82. 
*' number of, 84. 
" breadth of, etc., 84. 
" secondary, 95. 
Lamina! plexus. 57. 
Laminitis, shoeing after, 396. 
Leather soles, 301. 
Ligaments of the foot, 32. 

fetlock joint, 33. 

" suspensory o r 

superior sesa- 

moidean, 35. 

" pastern joint. 37. 

" coffin joint, 38. 

Limbs, conformation of (fore), 172. 

(hind), 177 
Loose wall, 872. 
Lymphatics, description of, 53. 

Material for shoes, 129. 
Mechanical functions of hoof, 111. 
Mechanism, anti-cdncussive, of 

limb, 112. 
Middle-ages, shoes of the, 8. 
Moving, how hoof is advanced in, 

182. 
Mules, shoeing of, 810. 

Nail-holes, 138. 

Nail-holes, "coarse"' and "'fine,'" 

138. 
Nailing on the shoe, directions for, 

273. 
Nails, 272. 
Navicular disease, 407. 

" gait in, 408. 



Navicular disease, symptoms of .408 

" " shoeing for, 409. 

Nerve supplj^ influence of, on 

growth of horn, 102. 
Nerves of foot, 59. 

Omnibus horses, general remarks 
on shoeing, 244. 
*' *' special shoes for, 

245, 246. 
Oriental shoe, 261. 
Ox, anatomy of foot, 415. 
" shoeing of. 422. 
" -travis, 423, 
" -travis, improvised, 425, 

Pace, its influence on wear of 

hoof, 103. 
Pads, rubber, 301. 

Downie's, 304. 
" " Hartmann's, 305. 

" rope, 307. 
" straw, 807. 
" cork, 308. 
«' felt. 308. 
" elastic cement, 309. 
Periople, 79. 

" how formed, 66. 
Perioplic ring, 67. 

" " inflammation of, 

386. 
Phosphor bronze shoes, 133. 
" Picked-up " nails, 381. 
Plaited soles used in Japan, 4. 
Plantar cushion, 48. 

" " venous plexus of , 

59. 
Plexus, laminal, 57. 
" coronary, 58. 
" venous,of plantar cushion, 
59. 
Podometer, 216. 

Preparing hoof for shoeing, 202. 
Pricks in shoeing, 378. 

" " causes of, 379. 

" " treatment of, 

380. 
"Pumiced" sole. 831. 
Pus, color of, imiDortant, 321. 

Race-horses, general remarks on 
shoeing, 229. 

" " special shoes for, 

231. 
Railway shunting horses, special 

shoes for, 258. 
Removing the old shoes, 199. 
Rings on hoof, 192. 
" Rod way " bar iron, 130. 
'•Rolled bars," 130. 
"Rolling" the toe, 267. 



438 INDEX. 



Rope-inlaid sboes, 363. 
Roughing, 158. 
Rough-nails, 154. 

" " Delperier's, 155. 

Rubber soles, 301. 

Sandcrack, definition of, 365. 
*' treatment of, 366. 

" coronarj^, 369. 

of bars, 371. 
" at ground surface, 372. 

Scandinavian "broddar," 9. 
Schools, farriers', 427. 
Screws, frost, 158. 
" Searching " the foot, 318, 379. 
Sebaceous glands, 63. 
Secondary laminae, 95. 
Seedy toe, 372.^ 
Sensitive laminae, 70. 

sole, 72. 
Shaping the shoe, 265. 
"Sharpened" heels (roughing), 

157. 
Sheath, middle of wall, 80. 

" laminal or connecting of 
wall, 82. 
Shod hoof, care of the, 813. 
Shoe, vv^ear of, 194. 

" choice of , 210. 
Shoeing, disadvantages of, 278. 
Shoes, material for, 129. 
Shunting horses (railway), special 

shoes for, 253. 
Side-bone, 402. 

' ' statistics of occurrence, 

403. 
" precautions in shoeing 

for, 406. 
Skin, description of, 61. 
Sole, horn, 84. 

Soles, leather and rubber {see also 
"Pads,"), 301 
" " uses of. 301. 

'* " disadvan- 

tages of, 802 
Spanner or screw-key for frost- 
screws, 163. 
Strained tendons, shoes for, 411-413 
Structure of foot, 20. 



Style of shoeing, choosing the, 199 
Surgical dressing, shoes for, 882- 

885. 
Synovia or joint oil, 82. 

Taps, for frost-screws, 162. 
Temporary shoes, 222. 
Tendon of extensor pedis, 41. 

" of flexor pedis perforatus, j 

41. 

*• " " perforans, 

42. 
Thrush, 375. 

' ' dressing for, 323. 
Tips, description and applicability 
of, 256. 
" Charlier, 258. 
Toe-grips, 148, 167. 
Tools, fireman's, 141, 

" doorman's, 208. 
" Treads " on the coronet, 886. 
Trotting horses, general remarks 
on shoeing, 2y2. 
' ' special shoes for, 

283-235. 
Turkish shoe, 261. 

Unshod hoofs, treatment of, 312. 
Upright hoof, 886. 

Veins of foot, 57. 

Vicious horses, control of, 197. 

Volar flexion of fetlock, 118. 

Wall of hoof, how formed, 64. 
" the three layers or sheaths 

of, 79. 
" sensitive ; theories of its 
function, 110. 

Wear, descent, falling or exten- 
sion, 195. 

Wear, ascent, lifting or flexion, 195 

Wear of hoof, influence of pace on, 
103. 

Weight, how distributed in foot, 174 

"White line," 86. 

Winter shoe. Count von Einsidel's, 
157. 

Wood-inlaid shoes, 264. 



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